Month: April 2021
Team Building in the Health Care
According to Paul Clark, in order to have healthy and safe teamwork the components of teamwork must be established first. These components include: shared goals, norms, roles, horizontal leadership, communication, and collocation (Clark 2009). To further implement team building it must be trained through specific programs additionally specific measures of teamwork need to be defined to determine the level of teamwork. Some team building programs include TeamSTEPPS (Team Strategies and Tools to Enhance Performance and Patient Safety), PAR (Participatory Action Reach), and simulation training. This article summarizes the importance of teamwork using defined concepts of teamwork and the implementation of team building programs. The results establish a safe and healthy work environment that increases patient safety and communication between all health care personnel.
One important concepts of teamwork includes goals. “Goals, are ends that (1) provide direction activities, (2) focus individuals with professional and personal talents on specific work, and (3) provide benchmarks helpful in measuring progress” (Clark 2009). The foundation of teamwork should be goal oriented or a main focus point in which all health care personnel are striving towards. It is obvious that without a shared goal teamwork cannot be obtained. Norms which, are unwritten rules on how a collective group should communicate and interact are also required to establish teamwork. Team norms must be practiced; it requires input of all team members on exceptions on team behavior, conflict resolution, and planning. (Clark 2009). Roles of team members must also be clearly outlined. When outlining roles it is important not to identify that one role is more important than another. Role blending fosters healthy teamwork this is defined as sharing or flexibility of roles. (Clark 2009). Practicing the blending of roles and outlining each role helps to build the foundations of teamwork.
Additionally using horizontal leadership versus hierarchical leadership fosters healthy and supportive teamwork. Horizontal leadership involves all team members to participate and collaborate on decisions. Horizontal leadership is also referred as a shared leadership. Although there is one leader all members can participate and share their knowledge, “The role of team leader does not place the leader in a position of power or dominance, there are no senior team members” (Clark 2009). Lastly the importance of collocation this is defined as networking and the pulling of resources. Collocation helps teamwork to thrive when all resources of every team member is combined and used to address a team issue (Clark 2009). These main concepts of team building provide a solid foundation and backbone to successfully build a team. Successful team building leads to healthier and safer work environments.
In order to have effectivly team building it must be practiced and trained. Programs such as PAR and TeamSTEPPS encourage a systematic and successful implantation of team building. TeamSTEPPS uses four teachable areas such as leadership, mutual support, situation monitoring, and communication. These teachable areas improve knowledge, skills, and attitude that are required for good teamwork (Clark 2009). Research has successfully identified that TeamSTEPPS improves teamwork by increasing effective communication and fosters less anger and more respect among staff (Clark 2009). Participatory action research is a collaborative group effort that all team members are included to identify an issue and work together to solve it. This program training implements mutual trust and empowerment to all health care staff.
Therefore it is important that in the health care setting the framework of teamwork should be established. Each concept: shared goals, norms, roles, horizontal leadership, communication, and collocation should be clearly defined so that all health care workers agree upon the same fundamentals of team work. Additionally the practice of a team-building program should be implemented and constantly practice among all health care personnel. This will help foster positive and healthy work environment. It is evident that practicing team building is required to maintain a successfully and functions work force it cannot be forced or automatically implemented. It takes time and effort from all health workers to successfully create a collaborative work force. As a health team member I want to start noticing these concepts in the work force. I would like to recognize which team building program has been implemented and see how well it truly works. I think that practicing team building is an on going process that continues to be implemented in today’s work force.
In conclusion establishing the main concepts of teamwork benefits the entire work force by building a solid foundation for all health team members to follow. Implementing a training program also initiates a collaborative team effort that forces the entire health care workers to pull from each other’s resources and successfully work as one untied team. Training programs also institutes practicing team building, which ultimately achieves a healthier and safe work environment. In today’s work force team efforts to practice team building is an on going process that continues to constantly be challenged and revised to improve health care environments.
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Team Building In The Health Care. (2021, Apr 09).
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Team Building and Leadership
As the newly appointed division lead for the project management firm I work within, it is my duty to assemble high-performing teams that can accomplish the tasks assigned while using professionalism and subject-matter expertise. The first assignment under my tenure was to assemble a team that can complete a construction management project in the local area of building a community playground and dog park.
Upon taking the position, I learned that I have employ six personnel that have an array of skills that I could possible use to establish my project team. Alice is a highly skilled and motivated worker that knows her job and skillset and is also motivated to come in every day to handle the tasks at hand. Bill will do anything that he is asked to do and is also highly motivated. However, he lacks some skills need to do some of the task by himself. Chris is another that lacks certain skills and from what I have seen so far, he also is not very motivated to accomplish anything. I will need to monitor Chris’ behaviors and output to determine if there is even a place on my staff for him. Doug is very eager to work everyday from what I have gathered; however, lacks some of the skills required to be given a leadership role. I have been told that Erica has shown in the past to have high-performance skill but lately she has been preoccupied and not performing to her full capacity. I will have a talk with Erica to see if there are personal issues that are hindering her from accomplishing her normal level of performance. Lastly, Lisa is very motivated and highly skilled according to her annual reports. I look forward to utilizing her skills and motivation to enhance the team dynamics for this project.
I completed a skills-motivation matrix on each of my subordinates to clarify and rank where they may fit as far as skills and motivation. Here are my findings:
Alice 3 High Skill & High Motivation
Lisa 3 High Skill & High Motivation
Bill 4 Low Skill & High Motivation
Doug 4 Low Skill & High Motivation
Chris 2 Low Skill & Low Motivation
Erica 1 High Skill & Low Motivation
My plan for each individual is customized based off using the skills-motivation matrix and will help me determine how to utilize each worker in the best manner. Alice and Lisa are my two highly skilled and highly motivated workers. My plan is to interview both of them to see who would make the best team lead for this upcoming project. My idea is to break this two up into two different teams, each of them leading the others on different upcoming projects. Next is Bill and Doug who are both highly motivated; however, lack the skills necessary to lead the team. I will split these guys up as well, assigning one to both Alice and Lisa as their helpers. Finally, Chris and Erica are my two workers that need more engagement from me as their supervisor. My plan is to speak with each of them one-on-one to find out why they are lacking motivation and or the ability to attain the needed skills to be part of my team. More to come on this development with Chris and Erica.
Upon having a meeting with all my workers, it has been determined that Lisa will be my team lead on the playground project and second to her command will be Doug. I spoke with both of them and they seem to have complimentary personality characteristics which I believe will enhance the overall project quality. Alice and Bill will make up what I am calling Team 2. Alice will be in charge of Team 2 with Bill as her helper for the next project to come to our division. After speaking with Erica, it was determined that she was having some personal issues going on in her life recently as I suspected. Her grandfather passed away and they were very close. Erica needs some more time to deal with the sensitive issues and I granted here a one week leave of absence so she can process things and be with family. I assured her from my own personal experiences that the time off will help, and when she returns, things will most likely improve with her performance. Chris on the other hand, is a completely different issue. Chris informed me during our meeting that he has never been given many opportunities to excel in this work center. His communication skills are lacking and this led the previous division lead to avoid training him and or including him on other projects. These things, he says are what have taken the motivation away from him as he thought he was very close to being fired. My plan with Chris is to put him with Lisa and Doug on Team 1. They are the most highly skilled and motivated team and this project may help Chris develop the skills to be a vital part of any team. I plan to monitor the performance of all the team members as a facilitator if they need guidance as well as offer some coaching to Chris to ensure the team’s success. I will provide mentorship to Lisa to ensure that she knows she can come to me for guidance during the project, but more importantly, dealing with her team which is a new experience for her and the members of her team.
In developing team competencies, certain areas should be addressed by using shared leadership. Shared leadership is where I can offer mentorship to those in leadership roles so that are able to get used to their new role as a team lead. Some of the areas that I feel I would insert shared leadership are; building trust, setting clear, and measurable goals for the team. And managing conflict. By sharing my experience with Lisa in these areas will ensure she is able to lead her team to success while retaining high performance.
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Team Building And Leadership. (2021, Apr 09).
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Infant Cognitive Development
Most scientists believed that Infants ate, cried, and slept but did not learn yet, but when Piaget became a father, he used his scientific observation on his own baby, he realized that infants are active learners, adapting to experience. Piaget called cognition in the first two years SENSORIMOTOR INTELLIGENCE. Piaget’s term for the way infants think by using their senses and motor skills. Piaget thought that at about eight months, babies understand the concept of OBJECT PERMANENCE, they realize that objects or people continue to exist even when they can no longer see, touch or hear them. During the second year, infant start experimenting in deed and thoughts. They act first which is stage five and they think later which is the stage six.
When a 1-year old child take an independent action to discover the properties of other people, animals, and things. Infants not only respond to their own bodies (primary reaction) but they also start reacting to other people or objects (secondary reaction) as well. (Berger,2017) Piaget called the stage five toddler as a LITTLE SCIENTIST who experience in order to see. The stage five toddler experiments without being worried about the results, they make errors in active and creative exploration.
According to the research by developmentalists, many infants reach the stage of sensorimotor intelligence earlier than Piaget predicted. A five-month old doesn’t only get surprised when objects disappear but babies younger than 1-year actually pretend and have different imagination. There is several ways of measuring brain activity that allow scientist to record infant cognition long before any observable evidence is found. In fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) a burst of electrical activity measured by blood flow within the brain is recorded, which indicate that the neurons are firing. This lets the researcher know that a particular stimulus has been noticed and processed.
When infant is about six months, infant can retain information for a longer time than younger babies do, with less training or reminding. Many experiments show that toddlers can transfer learning from one object or experience to another and they actually learn form people and events. One of the reason scientists underestimated memory was because they failed to learn the difference between the implicit memory and explicit memory. IMPLICIT MEMORY is memory that remains hidden until a particular stimulus brings it to mind. EXPLICIT MEMORY is memory that can be recalled on demand. Most explicit memory involves consciously learned words, data, and concept. Between six and nine months, babies repeat certain syllables such as ba-ba-ba, a vocalization called BABBLING because of the way it sounds.
In conclusion, a child’s brain and learning process starts at a very early stage of their life, young infants are active learners, they develop their understandings form objects. Infants memory is fragile but not completely absent. They learn things from their experience and people around them.
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Criminology: Richard Kuklinski
Criminology has existed since the 18th century. However, it gained popularity in the last century due to increase in crime. It is a social institution that involves the judicial system, the police and investigators, and the prison system. Many theories have been used to explain the rising crime rate, which include rational choice, social disorganization, social learning, conflict, and strain concepts. These concepts fall under two broad categories: biological and sociological. They enable criminologists to find the best possible solutions to reduce the occurrence of crime, which is an ongoing process.
Richard Kuklinski was a prolific hitman, who was given the nickname ‘The Iceman,' because of his unique method of freezing his victims’ corpses. He did it to thwart any efforts by forensic teams to determine the period of death since the bodies would still be fresh. Kuklinski was born in New Jersey in 1955; his parents, Stanley and Anna Kuklinski, were physically abusive parents (Holmes & Holmes, 2009). At the tender age of five, Kuklinski watched as his older brother Florian was beaten to death by his alcoholic father. The actions of the father played a major role in Kuklinski’s behavior and his pathological murdering skills.
According to his statement, he had killed over 100 people between 1948 and 1986. Although convicted for the murder of only five people by the New Jersey court in 1988, the officials also believed that the number of murders exceeds the stated five. Ironically, this killer believed in God and would wait 30 minutes before killing the victim to see if God would rescue the person (Martin, 2006).
After his capture in 1986, Kuklinski willingly opened up about his personal life, family life, criminal career, and his past. The information he provided drew writers, psychiatrists, interviewers, and the media to his story. Intrigued by the facts he provided, they conducted further investigations about his actions. This information can be used to fit criminological theories, such as the conflict theory, social learning theory, and the stress theory, to explain his aberrant behavior (Martin, 2006).
The conflict theory best describes Kuklinski’s behavior as it focuses on the struggles between individuals or groups as a result of the different power levels. Scholars accredited for this model include the famous Karl Marx, Max Weber, and George Simmel. Based on a capitalistic aspect, it assumes that given the inevitable continuous change that society undergoes, social conflicts and crime are created as a result of the interactions and conflicts between the different classes (Tittle, 2018).
According to the theory, to understand crime in a capitalist setup, one must be aware that these societies are dominated by a minority group of the powerful and wealthy individuals. Thus, for these people to maintain their status, they have to exploit the powerless group economically. Weak social control, great deviant motivation, and opportunity give the powerful the leeway to engage in profitable aberrant activities such as crime (Palmer & Humphrey, 2013). Conversely, the powerless are unable to undertake in profitable deviancy.
Richard was a sane and confident person aware of his actions. The fact that he worked for the mafia and became a hired hitman for the DeMeo and Gambino families showed that he was mentally stable. During his murderous escapades, he used all kinds of weapons and ways to kill his victims, including knives, strangulation, poison, fire, and even hand grenades. He would consciously make his victims suffer to prove to his employers that he could do so, as he took pride in pleasing them. He purposefully and willingly worked as a hitman to get himself the lifestyle he wanted (Holmes & Holmes, 2009). Given that he had a wife, Barbara, and children, he chose to be a serial killer to get easy and abundant money to sustain a family. Besides, he was confident enough to justify his actions since he argued that the victims deserved it because they had either crossed him or his clients; basically, it was enough that they had acted in some way that provoked him. He took control of any situation that irked him because he felt he had the power to do so.
In general, crime theories are used as a guide in the fight against crime. They enable experts in some cases to understand the nature of the crime, prevent and stop recurrence of crime. Moreover, I found the conflict theory could help describing Kuklinski’s behavior. Basically, it explains crimes within economic social contexts by connecting social class, crime and social control, so it is based upon the idea that crimes that are committed were cause by economic forces raised within a society. In that, Richard Kuklinski had his freewill when committed his crimes. He chose to work for the mafia as a hitman, and give his family a good normal life. In other words, Kulinski chose to use illegal deviant means to provide a legit lifestyle to himself, and his family to match a specific socioeconomic class.
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Criminology: Richard Kuklinski. (2021, Apr 09).
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Categories that are Used in Criminology
Abstract
This short essay will explore the four major categories that are used in helping classify crime. It will define the four categories based on the readings assigned in class, as well as research done outside of what was assigned. It will look into what things help define and differentiate these categories. This paper will study the issues and develop conclusions based on the evidence found in the readings and research as well as the impact the issues have on the police community.
Introduction
Crime is a social and economic phenomenon and is as old as our society. It is a legal concept, so is a legal wrong that can be followed by criminal proceedings which could possibly result in punishment. Many types of crime exist. When classifying crime, there are four categories that are used by criminologists to do so. These four categories are conventional crime, white-collar crime, cyber-crime, organized crime and victimless crime. When classifying crime into these four categories, there are many characteristics that are looked at to help. All of these categories have massive financial, social, and physical costs.
Conventional Crime
The first category of crime is conventional crime. Conventional crimes are illegal behaviors that most people think of as crime. Most crime is considered as conventional crime. Conventional crimes are divided into two categories; property crimes and violent crimes. While the most common of the two are property crimes, violent crimes are the ones people tend to fear the most. Conventional crime includes murder, rape, assault, robbery, burglary, and theft. Property crime does not involve physical harm, but it still makes people have cause for concern.
Although property crime has in fact declined along with violent crime over the last thirty years, it still is considered a major component of the crime problem, because it is so common and produces losses of billions of dollars annually. To help prevent property crime many people now equip their homes, shops, buildings, etc. with alarms and other high-tech security measures.
Research on violent crime tends to concentrate mainly on homicide, rape and sexual assault as well. The taking of a human life, or homicide is considered the most serious crime. The data collected on homicides are considered more accurate than the data recorded for other crimes because most homicides are brought to the attention of the police and are more likely than other crimes to lead to an arrest.
White-collar and Cyber-crime
White-collar and cyber-crime are the second category when classifying crime. So, what exactly is white-collar crime? By definition, white-collar crime is “crime that typically involves stealing money from a company and that is done by people who have important positions in the company,” (Merriam-Webster). Sociologist Edwin Sutherland was the first one to introduce the idea of white-collar crime. “White-collar crime was important to criminology because it showed that people from other than the lower classes violate the law, even if they are rarely convicted in criminal court,” (Conklin). White-collar crimes are categorized by deception, cover-ups, or abuse of trust and are not dependent on the application or threat of physical force or violence. The motivation behind this type of crime is financial, to gain or evade losing money, property, or services or to secure a personal or business advantage.
Cyber-crime is another category of crime. “Cyber-crime is any crime committed in the electronic environment of linked computer networks,” (Conklin). In cyber-crime the threats are identity theft, computer and network intrusions, and online predators just to name a few. Scammers these days seem to have more information than one would feel comfortable with them knowing. They can call you and know your full name and address, and just need you to confirm your social security number. They even pose as the company you bank with, and say your credit card you had through them is past due and they need payment immediately. “Another kind of Internet fraud is “phishing,” the practice of sending phony e-mails that are purportedly from legitimate Internet Service Providers, online merchants, or banks. These e-mails ask recipients to provide a password, a bank account, or credit card number, or other information, which the thieves use to defraud the victim,” (Conklin).
Organized Crime
The mafia is probably the first thing to come to one’s mind when they hear the words organized crime. “Organized crime is criminal activity by an enduring structure devoted primarily to the pursuit of profits through illegal means,” (Conklin). Usually, organized crime is associated with the mafia in the United States, but has been broadened to other ethnic groups within the last few years. In some ways, organized crime can affect the nation’s economic output. It can affect the per capita income, decrease the number of jobs, and raise consumer prices. “The activities of organized crime also have social costs. One essential element of organized crime is the corruption of public officials and police officers who allow gangsters to operate. Reports of such corruption can erode faith in the government and even cause people to pursue careers other than politics,” (Conklin).
Victimless Crime
Victimless crime is the last category used to classify crime, but is it really victimless as its name suggests? “A victimless crime is an offense that is consensual and lacks a complaining participant (Schur, 1965; Meier and Geis, 1997). Victimless crimes might better be called crimes without complainants, because some people have questioned the idea that there are no victims of crimes such as the sale and use of illegal drugs, gambling, and prostitution,” (Conklin). Couldn’t this idea be argued, though? If your spouse is doing illegal drugs, or gambling, won’t that affect you as well and even your family? In the end, someone will always end up hurting, so it doesn’t seem as though the name is fitting.
Conclusion
When classifying crime, there are four categories that are used by criminologists to do so. These four categories are conventional crime, white-collar crime, cyber-crime, organized crime and victimless crime. Conventional crimes are divided into two categories; property crimes and violent crimes. White-collar crime involves someone lower on the totem pole so to speak, taking money from someone that has more power. Cyber-crime is similar to that of conventional crime, but it is done strictly online. Organized crime refers to groups of people that only exist for the sole purpose of breaking the law. Victimless crime is the last category. Victimless crimes include things as drugs or gambling. “A victimless crime is an offense that is consensual and lacks a complaining participant (Schur, 1965; Meier and Geis, 1997)”, (Conklin).
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Categories That Are Used In Criminology. (2021, Apr 09).
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Criminology: Correlation between Poverty and Crime
The correlation between poverty and crime is something that appears to be obvious, though seldom clearly proven by the use of statistics. Organizations dealing with crime repeatedly emphasize the importance of job creation projects, measures in relation to unemployment, improvement of housing, which all is seen as a contributory factor to the growth of crime. Economic growth is considered as a prerequisite for improving the quality of life; not just any kind of growth, though. Politicians and social policy makers should support that economic growth which will contribute to the improvement of human development, reduction of poverty and inequality among people, (Petrovec, 2000).
Problems of the poor that may lead to crime include unemployment, income inequality, and quality of job; for corporate management, the pursuit of profit is responsible for crimes against consumers, employees, and environmental safety, (Danner, 1993). The majority of people view that anger, violence and crime are the direct outcome of the poverty caused by long-term unemployment. The solution to this, it was argued, was for the government to deal directly with unemployment somehow or provide more social welfare support. Several people took an approach that was overtly influenced by a left-wing political orientation in arguing that the sources of crime are structural and related to social inequalities. As a result, they argued, governments must focus more attention on providing support for dispossessed and alienated groups, (Lupton, 1999).
The potential of community development to contribute to crime prevention, particularly 'community' or 'street' crime and violence. These developments can help prevent crime and violence that is associated with dis-empowerment, poverty, inequality, exclusion, the learning of violence within families and communities, and lack of opportunity for children and young people to develop their potential. Implementing strategies most frequently associated with community development processes are citizen participation, networking, activism, lobbying and advocacy, community organization, local service development, social planning, popular education and consciousness raising, (Lane & Henry, 2004).
When there is someone who is living in a poverty area, they are limited to many opportunities that others may receive that are not experiencing poverty. Therefore, many out of desperation, necessity, or other means will resort to being involved in criminal matters to achieve their means. For instance, if a child needs clothes for school, a mother or any decent parent will do what they have to, in order to make sure their child is clothed for school. Unfortunately, many good people are faced with difficult decisions and spite their best efforts end up committing crimes out of need.
Even though many people work numerous jobs to survive and provide for their families, many still fall short of this achievement. There does not seem to be many places of employment to combat this issue, to which other jobs, simple do not pay enough. Therefore, community development and programs to aid in these matters can help provide additional assistance, which can prevent crime. Likewise, educational or technical programs can prepare juveniles for future endeavors as they grow and develop.
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Criminology: Correlation Between Poverty And Crime. (2021, Apr 09).
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“There are no Children Here”: Criminology
Throughout childhood, children learn from the surrounding people. Specifically, a child’s family and friends have the greatest influence on their growth as individuals. Through interacting with these close connections, children learn what behavior is acceptable and unacceptable, legal and illegal, etc. They learn which behaviors are rewarded, punished and even if the behavior can go unnoticed. How behavior is defined and presented by those around them will influence their own definitions and, thus, these definitions will provide a framework for their future behavior. For two years, Kotlowitz chronicled the lives of the Rivers’ family, particularly Lafeyette, age eleven, in his book, There Are No Children Here. He described the multi-faceted horrors the family faced daily from 1987-1989 in the Henry Horner housing project of inner-city Chicago. The family was confronted with poor living conditions, poverty, drugs and violence, and murder.
The family was on welfare and their mother was the primary caregiver of Lafeyette, Pharoah and their five other siblings. The Horner housing project was surrounded by gangs and violence. Shootings and murder occurred almost every day and drug usage and sales were prevalent. Lacking educational and employment opportunities, the family had no other option than to stay in the projects enduring hardships.
These difficulties affected Lafayette immensely. Layfette was between the ages of eleven and thirteen when the book was written. Those are formative years when so much is changing physically, emotionally and socially. The years were even more difficult by his living conditions, which exposed him to criminal activity. During the two years that were chronicled, Layfette saw his brother incarcerated for criminal behavior and watched his sister battle a drug habit. His father battled alcohol and drug addictions. His close friends, Bird Leg and Craig, were murdered on the streets. Layfette’s close friend, Rickie, digressed down the path engaging in drug use, gang activity and use of weapons. Because his family and friends were the primary sources of connection for Layfette, their life choices negatively influenced Layfette’s perspective and outlook on life.
Learning how to act, interact, and react to given situations is learned. Social learning theory states that crime and deviance is learned through interactions with others, especially family and friends. Those with whom we associate can teach us behavior toward crime that is favorable or unfavorable. Tendencies toward crime and deviance can be reinforced through positive rewards for such behavior. Learned deviance from a young age that is encountered frequently and extended over a long period of time increases the probability that such behavior would be ingrained in one’s thought process.
Layfette was surrounded by deviance. Throughout the book, Kotlowitz mentions that for years, Layfette saw family, friends, neighbors and the community choose to engage in criminal behavior; theft, vandalism, assault, police brutality, poverty, and alcohol and drug abuse were commonplace. Layfette drew upon these experiences while making his own decisions.
It was clear that Layfette wanted to make wise choices despite what was going on around him. He valued his mother’s opinion and resisted being involved in crime for a time do to his mother’s insistence. She encouraged him to do well in school and saw his potential for living a life outside of the projects. To increase his likelihood for success, she discouraged him from hanging out with people that would introduce him to a personal, first-hand account of understanding crime. As the story unfolded, Layfette had a hard time evading the impacts of the area’s penchant for criminal behavior.
The oppressive environment was difficult on Layfette. The death of his friends, Bird Leg and Craig, hit Layfette hard. He became withdrawn and isolated himself. Layfette rarely talked to his mother, further secluding himself from her positive influence. He moved from positive influences on to negative ones. Involvement with pseudo-gangs, shoplifting, and negative interactions with the police landed Layfette in trouble with the law. The deviant action displayed by others in that society now seemed to be exhibited by Layfette.
After thirteen years of being submerged into an environment as horrific as Horner House in Chicago, it would be extremely difficult to put aside what Layfette learned over that length of time. Projecting someone’s life’s course based on their passed learning experiences would not fare well in Layfette’s case. I would surmise that the familial experience with drug and alcohol use would put Layfette at risk for similar behavior. His father, sister and brother used alcohol and drugs as a coping mechanism in life. I believe that as life progressed, Layfette would have a similar fate.
Alcohol and drug dependency would not be the only issue facing Layfette. While growing up, he encountered all too often gangs and gang related activity, which included the use of weapons. While I don’t believe that Layfette would be involved in gangs, I would not be surprised if he owned or possessed a weapon. I do not believe that Layfette would use such a device to hurt someone intentionally because he saw the devastation that guns cause in the death of his two friends. He may, however, use the gun for self- protection or petty theft.
Whether it be gun use, alcohol, or using/selling drugs, I believe that Lafayette will be, at some point, incarcerated for criminal behavior. It hurts the heart to project someone’s future based on past experiences. It is especially difficult when a negative projection is forecasted for a child that has no ability to change their life’s course. Yet without a significant change in environment or pro-social groups, people will continue to learn criminal behavior from the society around them.
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"There Are No Children Here": Criminology. (2021, Apr 09).
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Criminology: Dori Myers
Crime is a violation to societal rules of behavior as interpreted and expressed by the criminal law. These criminal behaviors can reflect the public opinion, traditional views and the view point of those who contain social or political authority. Within time, there will appear to be certain experiences that influence individuals to break the law, such as biological, psychological and/or social reasons. In this paper I will discuss about Dori Myers, a formal social studies teacher at New School for Leadership and the Arts, a public school located in the Bronx. Myers was accused back in January for performing oral sex on a 14-year-old male student, multiple times. A classmate supposedly found out about the incident and notified the school’s principle. There was also a witness, such as another teacher who saw Myers massaging the 14-year-old as well. Dori Myers has been charged with “criminal sexual act in the second degree” also with “endangering the welfare of a child”, however she still chose to deny. The incident was also taken to the Department of Education and they called the accusation “deeply troubling”, however instead of firing her from her job, they resigned her away from the students.
On August 1st, Dori Myers pled guilty and entered into a plea agreement consisting of ten years in probation and registered as a Level 1 sex offender and will not be given the title such as “predator”. Level 1 sex offenders are considered as “low risk” and can be de-registered after 20 years while also NOT being listed on the public dictionary. After Myers being fired, the Education Department mentioned she is not allowed to work in the NYC schools ever again. But this does leave the door open for her on becoming a teacher somewhere else. In this assignment, I will argue that the criminal behavior of Dori Myers can be explained due to female sex offenders being underreported. For my argument, I will rely on rational-choice theory of crime and provide a few arguments to support it. First, I believe that Myers already knew that studies shown that there is a limited lack of research concerning female sex offenders. The insufficient studies that exist on this topic have found that the overall percentage rate of sexual offense recidivision for females are very low. Second, I will discuss that as a white individual, Myers was able to avoid two years in prison, and only given ten years of probation, while ALSO keeping her teaching license.
Studies prove that both female and male individuals who are victims of female sex offenders tell no one. Young girls are faced with the trouble of convincing people that another females touch can be abusive and that certain gestures between females can be sexualized. Males often do not report victimization due their physical response and the matter of consent given. This leads to more questions, such as if there was an erection present, if there was abuse, the relationship between the two and if the young male also responded with other sexual acts. After Dori Myers was entered into a plea agreement for ten years in probation and being registered as a Level 1 sex offender. She will also be allowed to de-registered and not be listed on the public dictionary after 20 years. Prosecuting attorneys asked for Myers to get at least two years in prison and to have her teaching certificate revoked. Yes, she did get fired BUT can still teach anywhere else besides New York City. Myers’ attorney describes her as a “model teacher whose career was destroyed by spurious allegations”, but it has also appeared that the male victim posted a video on Snapchat of himself with Dori Myers with the caption of “me and my sexy a** wife.” Due to the students snapchat video it appears that the victim’s own behavior also played an active role in this criminal incident. I strongly disagree with the actions being taken with this case. Dori Myers should get a harsher sentence equal to a male offender. There are multiple people on the original story who are praising the criminal act and claiming that the male victim enjoyed the sexual acts, those are the ones who victim blame turns their heads when a young girl is raped. Unlike those who rightly see the irresponsibility in letting a pedophile run freely. To me, it is sickening seeing the response from most
“boys” applauding this teacher and saying that’s what they all want. As for me, I do not understand how someone can both be a registered sex offender and have a teaching certificate. Within my first argument, I will use rational-choice theory of crime and the lifestyle theory of victimization. In rational choice theory, people make rational choices based on their goals. They behave as they do because they believe that performing their chosen action has more benefits than costs. As for lifestyle theory of victimization, the victims put themselves in danger by engaging in high risk behavior or activities.
Specifically, I will analyze how Myers was aware that because she is a female, that there is a low number of women committing sex crime being reported which avoids them from being detected and prosecuted. The laws that protect victims from sex crimes in history have not considered females as offenders. Rape is often known for the term of forced vaginal intercourse and has made it legally incapable for females to commit the crime. As states continue to develop laws for sex offenders and their time in prison, they are still limited to the research regarding female offenders. While Myers still performed oral sex to the 14-year-old victim, he still gave her consent and did not try to stop the actions being taken at the time. Due to the outcome of Myers using the rational choice theory, you can see that she had careful thought, planning and evaluated her risk of punishment, apprehension and ability to succeed. All of these factors seemed to have gone according to plan because her punishment was not strict enough and she still was able to keep her teaching license.
As an adult, Myers knew what the 14-year-old boy was getting himself into. Which bring us to the use of lifestyle theory of victimization. As mentioned earlier, the 14-year-old male victim posted a video on Snapchat of him and Dori Myers with the caption of “me and my sexy a** wife.” Due to the students snapchat video it appears that the victim’s own behavior also played an active role in this criminal incident. This evidence shows that the victim placed himself in danger by engaging in a high-risk activity.
In conclusion, the criminal behavior of Dori Myers can be explained due to female sex offenders being underreported. This was proven with the use of rational-choice theory of crime. Because of that, we are able to see that Myers was able to avoid two years in prison, and only given ten years of probation, while also being allowed to keep her teaching license. She will also be allowed to teach anywhere else as long as it is not New York City.
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Important Questions about Criminology
What is crime?
Crime is an action that violates the established laws of a place such as a country, town, city, state, or province. In order for something to be considered a crime, there has to be a law set in place. If a place is without laws, then it is also without crime.
Three different types of norms
The three different types of norms are folkways, mores, and laws. Folkways are casual societal expectations of how one should act and they distinguish between behavior that is well-mannered and behavior that is ill-mannered. One example of folkways would be waiting for your turn to speak and to not speak when someone else is talking. Mores are norms that are a bit more strict than folkways because they explain what is moral and immoral in society. An example of a more would be it being socially unacceptable and frowned upon for someone to be chewing with their mouth open in the United States, whereas in other countries, it may be common. Laws are norms that are official, written down, and have consequences for breaking them. An example of a law would be having to stop when the light at the traffic light is red.
Surveys in criminology
In criminology, surveys are used to gather someone’s opinions about a concern about a certain crime and are also used to get information from people who may have committed or been a part of a crime. Surveys collect distinct information about a crime, such as a date, time, and location of the crime, as well as information about the victim or victims, like their age, gender, and race.
Actus reus
Actus reus one of the elements that is needed for a person to be found guilty of a crime they have committed. It is the literal act that the person has been accused of, but in order for the person to be convicted, there must be evidence to support the accusation.
How are crime and deviance related?
Crime and deviance are related by both being acts that violate the norms of a society. Deviance is breaking a certain standard of behavior, which is a norm, while a crime is breaking a law, which is a type of norm. No, crime and deviance do not represent the same actions because when crimes are committed, there are serious consequences, whereas when there is deviance, it is usually just frowned upon. Emile Durkheim argues that deviance is beneficial to society in a number of ways, such as showing us where the boundaries of acceptable behavior are and that it can bring a group together. I agree with Emile Durkheim. I also believe that when people agree on a certain thing, whether that be condemning an act of deviance or reinforcing norms, it brings them together and strengthens their bonds with one another. Also, if there were no borders between accepted and unaccepted behavior, people may behave in ways that could strongly offend other people and cause chaos.
Why should we study crime and criminals?
I think that we should study crime and criminals so that we are able to understand them and be able to stop more crimes before they happen. I believe that it is important to study criminals and to understand their point of view and motive of why they decided to commit whatever crime they committed. By studying criminology, we might gain insight as to how criminals think and work. We may also help other fields of study by doing so, such as psychology and sociology.
Why defining crime is so difficult?
I think defining a crime is so difficult because everyone has different morals and people may view the severity of a crime differently. The definition of crime from the lesson is, “human actions that violate the formalized laws of a country, state, or local areas like a city or township.” It is hard to thoroughly define a crime because different places have different laws and regulations. An example of a “crime” not being considered a crime would be shooting and killing someone out of self-defense. Yes, it is a crime because the person being shot would be murdered, but it is not considered a crime because it was an act of self-defense. Criminology combines the theories and insights of a number of different disciplines as well as adding its own insight into crime and criminals.
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Cultural Criminology: the Idea of Gender and Sexuality
In the article written by Laura Naeglar 2006 et. al), feminist criminology relays to the actual events that women have been discarded and have been discriminated against in the field of study in criminology. However, in culture criminology, women do indeed take a certain risk as of those of the male figures but in the same direct way as men.
Criminality, in fact, is believed that it had been one of the most focus on traditional on the theory of the anthropocentric field of study in social sciences. The researches and theories have explained that elucidates the study of male criminality and the criminal systems that point to the fact that males better respond to male offenders. Women, on the other hand, have been represented in the most negative and stereotypical system which focuses on their failure to adhere to the traditional models of appropriate female behavior.
Other researches have compiled on a volunteer basis and among rescue groups as an edgework. It was an event through these research that indeed, men were prejudice against their females competitors in regards to physical competence among these women. This risks showed that both men and women took the same risks.
The approach of women being more precautions in taking risks exposes them to be known as more weaker species and preventing themselves from exposing themselves to more dangerous trends where men do not preserve this type of approach.
Continued differences regarding males and females focusing our attention on males roles in the case of terrorism. Male followers of join the ISIL group seeking power, the promising of glory, living a high fantastic lifestyle life adding the trill and excitement of power and even dying for one of their own. Women, also have the same beliefs as men in the ISIL groups they also do it for the purpose of power, excitement and the promise of glory, in reaching these analyzes there is no difference or inequality between men and women and they do indeed take high risks pursuits.
In the final discussion about this article emphasizes that is still room for invitational openness among the feminism groups that present a more friendlier approach for women endeavors. Furthermore, it also calls for gender to become an acknowledge it as a regular and not as an add-on facet of the cultural criminology theatrical studies.
In today’s exception on cultural criminology, it still sternly tending to the emphasis that on the idea of gender and sexuality, dismisses the key co, component the main key to developing more research and scholarly investigations on the topic of gender clarifications. With this conclusion, it is impossible to explain crime with the hegemonic codes of femininity and masculinity to prove social repression which leads to desire and human emotions.
There were no other researches, data, methods offered in this article, however, it only described the difference between femininity and masculinity for the purpose of clarifying the lesson on cultural criminology prospective side on the sub-cultural of the place of women before and today.
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Classical Theory of Criminology
Criminology is the study and scientific approach to find reasoning to justify the behavior of criminals. By understanding the reasoning behind the execution of a crime, one can begin to develop many ways of preventing and controlling crime or reintegrating criminals. There are numerous theories of criminology that could justify one's action. Theories can be used to accompany policy making and can be assessed on a number of criteria, including clarity, scope, parsimony, testability, practicality and empirical validity.
The classical theory imposes the ideas that free will influences the decision of individuals to commit crime and that punishment should be to prevent future crimes from being committed. The Classical Crime School (2015) shows that there are five key principles of classical theory, for example, rationality, hedonism, human rights, punishment and due process. It is essential to fully understand the theory and its components. Rationality imposes the idea that people have free will and the power to decide whether to commit a crime. Hedonism assumes that people are looking for pleasure and are not trying to find pain. Punishment acts as a dissuasion against crime, human rights, which gives people full access to their natural rights and society is strictly forced to respect the rights of these people. Finally, due process which imposes the idea of people accused of a crime shall be deemed innocent until proven guilty, and they shall also have the opportunity to go to trial and face the judicial system.
The era of enlightenment was an important period which was regarded as the stepping stone of classical theory. According to the Classical School of Crime (2015), The enlightenment period was a time where ideas sparked philosophers to come up with different ideologies that are till this day significant towards the development of the society. The enlightenment period began in the 17th century, people in the enlightenment were interested in crime and what the best punishment should be. From the enlightenment, is where the classical school began to take place. Things before the enlightenment was horrible for criminals and the people who were suspected of being criminals.
Cesare Beccaria was an italian criminologist, philosopher, politician, and jurist who was considered to be a talented jurist and one of the best enlightenment thinkers. He was born in March 15, 1738 and died November 28, 1794, Cesare was well known to be the father of the classical criminology. At a young age he published a famous work titled on crimes and punishments he developed his ideology which is now called the classical theory. The Law Teacher (2018) gives a background of how the classical theory began to originate. The classical thinking began to take place as a response to the cruel and brutal form of punishment during the 18th century. Writers such as Montesquieu and Voltaire were a great influence into developing this new classical thinking both these writers were involved in campaigns focused on the reformation of the judicial system. Cesare Beccaria, goals were simple and direct to the point he wanted to reduce the harshness of the judicial system. The classical theory has been in existence since the 18th century and till this day its ideas and components are still being used and performed into our daily lives. For example, the 8th amendment is a law that protects citizens from cruel and unusual punishment. The classical theory influenced the developers of the bill of rights and the U.S constitution. It helped to strengthen the concept of a right and quick trial, cruel and unusual punishment and to eliminate the idea of torture as punishment. In a theory, the idea of another theory of criminology developed a chain of different theories.
Although the classical theory was a form of reforming the judicial system just like any other theory this classical thinking had its pros and cons. As mentioned in course hero (2018) this theory does not apply to everyone because it does not help individuals who may have biological factors that could potentially affect them as a person, such as preventing them from thinking and behaving accordingly. Individuals who are challenged may not be able to make the right decisions due to mental illness such as schizophrenia, which is a long - term mental disorder and other diseases such as alzheimer, depression, etc. Not everyone chooses to be a criminal, things like external influences, oppression, lack of opportunity and the involvement of forced gangs can lead to a crime. The classical theory favors only people who are physically and mentally stable to distinguish between good and bad.
In my opinion my validity of the classical theory is per say in between. Just like any other theory the classical theory is a great theory that was developed millions of years ago. I like how the focus on unusual punishment influenced the development of the bill of rights and the U.S constitution because it shows how influential history has been to modern life. It also shows how influential famous figures have been reinforcing and fixing our judicial system in a way that not only benefits the citizens but also the individuals working in the system. Without this theory being developed, our government will be extremely corrupt because of the lack of laws that would be able to protect citizens. Which is why I strongly agree when Cesare Beccaria stated that there is “NO CRIME WITHOUT LAW”. Without law we wouldn't be able to validate the interpretation of crime, society will be extremely hard to even manage, there would simply be no development of the judicial system. However, as great as this theory is I truly disagree with the idea of free will that was developed in this theory. Society is a place where everyone is born different. Everybody has their own ideas, their own problems, their personal interpretation of things. There exist numerous individuals who are currently and have been mentally disabled to make correct decisions and there's also individuals who are ill enough to be influenced to make decisions due to their illness. Not everyone is capable of making correct decisions and the idea of free will presented in this theory is only really focusing on the people who are mentally and physically fit to make correct decisions and it is excluding those who are not.
To sum up, the classical theory is a highly complex ideology with many different elements that can potentially be a response to crime. According to the classical theory, it imposes the ideas that the decisions of individuals to commit crime are influenced by free will and that punishment should be about prevalence. It is important that we learn about these theories, because it not only helps us to deeply understand the justice system, but also helps us to learn about people and the reasoning behind their behaviour.
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“Zootopia”: Sociology and Criminology
Zootopia was a movie unlike any other disney movie I have ever seen. A movie jam packed with complex characters, an edge of your seat plot and a movie the covered many real, raw and controversial topics, it was one of disney's both best and honest movies. Despite the fantastical aspect the the setting zootopia gave the movie, it still impressively covered many issues we see in mainstream news and media outlets, Zootopia targeted issues like; stereotypes, race and prejudice boldy, and well. This movie covered many aspects of both sociology and criminology very well, and although it was made for children there are many important lessons and concepts to learn and understand from this movie. While connecting crime theory to the movie I choose the labelling theory, and to connect it to Nick the fox.
Nick is a fox, which according to nature gives him a bad reputation. A reputation as sly, untrustworthy and unreliable. While young he had hopes of becoming a Local Junior Ranger for the town, but when it was time for him to join to he was muzzled and shamed by the group. This could relate to today's society, in how we see poor people, how some people view people of color, or who people who grew up in violent neighborhoods filled with poverty. He was unfairly treated and label as bad, even though he was not bad. According to Howard Becker “Deviance is not a quality of the act a person commits, but rather a consequences of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an ‘offender’. Deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label.” therefore because of the label, the fox was much more likely to commit a crime after he was unfairly and wrongly labeled by society. We get our definition of self from others, consequently causing the fox to believe he was a criminal before ever even committing a crime.
Labels are generally given to the powerless by the powerful, in this case when the ranger master and all of his peers labeled him, he was a powerless victim in the act of being labeled. In modern society we could compare that two the amount of black teenagers who are charged with crime vs. the amount of white teenagers who are charged with crime. When the police or someone with power label you, you become more deviant, and once you are in the system it is much harder to get out of it, than remain in it. Labelling is something we all do, we all make judgements however, when you have enough power to influence someone into agreeing with your label, you could have potentially set someone up to fall, who without your judgement or label would’ve been less likely to fail. In this case, the fox later become an experienced conman who probably only became one because of the label that was thrown at him. However, labelling has many consequences. Many theorists believe that by labelling certain people as criminal or deviant, society actually encourages them to become more so. Therefore it is believed that if as a society if we stopped labelling people as criminal we would have less criminals.
Finally, the label will become irrelevant to the person who is labeled. They will no longer care about the fact the society has deemed them criminal, and they will be more likely to commit a crime, or participate in deviant activities. The fox was not evil in his eyes or the eyes of others until he was labeled that way. Once he was labeled that way he fully succumb to the effects of the label and participated in a life of crime and deviance as a conman. I personally don’t believe that the fox would have proceeded with the lifestyle he lives if it wasn’t for the label put on him. After the fox wore the label long enough he became almost blind to it, he became so accustomed to the deviant lifestyle he was living his label quickly became irrelevant and to him it simply became who he was.
As a society we have standards, we have biases, and judgments whether we choose to or not. However when people with power, for example the police, or someone whom you look to, your peers even judge and label you harshly, it can have life changing and devastating consequences. I believe as a society we need to focus on judging ourselves before we judge others, and we need to focus more on empathy than predicjuce. If we spent more time building eachother up, practiced more kind words, and didn’t focus on labeling others as much we would not only have a kinder society, but we would have a safer society.
The movie Zootopia was unlike any other disney movie I have ever seen, the realness of movie so was thoughtful and raw that I only assume it constantly kept audiences on the edge of their seats. This movie studied many therioes of criminilogy and socieology. However, I believe that the labelling theory is the most prominate and obvious theory within this movie. What Nick the fox became after being labelled by society, is heartbreaking. I immensely believe that without the label that was put on the fox, (as sly and unreilable) he wouldn’t have committed the life of crime he did. The movie directly relates to and highlights many modern day struggles we face as a society. From cases of police brutality, racial profiling or even juveniles in gang violence, we can all justify those crimes by the general labelling theory.
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The Development of Criminology
This essay will describe the development of criminology, including an explanation of the early approaches to the arguments for the ‘rehabilitation’ of criminals and for the ‘treatment’ of criminals and will compare and contrast these theories.
In the pre-enlightenment era scientists began to look for the reasons behind individuals carrying out criminal or deviant acts. Scientists questioned if all crimes were due to being under the influence of the devil. At this time punishment for criminal activity was barbaric. Judges, at their whim, would pass down sentences of torture. This level of torture was the same for petty crimes as it was more serious ones: a hungry child stealing a loaf of bread could easily lose a hand but that same punishment could be given to a more serious crime. Hangings, floggings, being placed in the stocks or the amputation of limbs was commonplace. These sentences would be carried out in a public arena, as this was thought to deter any further criminal behaviour from the onlookers.
An Italian Scientist Ceaser Baccaria with a background believed in the theory of free-will. He theorised that the punishment for criminals should fit the severity of the crime, a judge should only decide guilt and that punishments should be preordained. He believed that the barbaric torture techniques of the era were not conducive to reducing or deterring crime.
Baccaria theorised that humans are rational actors, that if presented with the absolute consequences of a crime, that they would make a rational choice. They would choose if the pleasure of the crime was worth the pain of the punishment should they be caught. It was Baccaria’s belief that punishment should not be of a torturous nature and that sentence should be passed quickly as this would deter further criminal behaviour. He also believed that Crime was not related to religion or superstition. The secular beliefs of Baccaria were radical during this era.
Barraria believed that fines or prison sentences in fit for purpose prisons was the answer. These prisons he believed would allow for Criminals to be rehabilitated and they could even, in some cases, eventually be returned to society.
Casare Lombroso an Italian Physician, dismissed Baccaria’s theory. He believed that a Biological Theory was true. Lombroso theorised that some individuals are born criminals. That committing crimes or engaging in deviant behaviour is inherited and genetically in their nature. That committing crimes is an instinct that they cannot control. He classes the congenital criminal as an anomally, partly pathological and partly atavistic, a revival of the primital savage, that they are in fact a subspecies of human (Ferrero, 1911).
Lombroso started his research into the cause of criminal behaviour by interviewing and studying criminals in prison and penal institutions. But it was in 1870 whilst performing the autopsy of criminal Giuseppe Villella, that he noticed cranial differences and thus began his theory. He wrote “like a large plain beneath an infinite horizon, the problem of the nature of the delinquent was illuminated which reproduced in our time the characteristics of primitive man right down to the carnivores.” (Mazzarello, 2011, 97-101).
He believed these defects could also distinguish between what type of crimes the individual would carry out. He believed “violators of woman have swollen, protruding lips but swindlers have thin straight lips” (Ferrero, 1911, 16) and “nose twisted, upturned, or flattened in thieves, or aquiline or beaklike in murderers” (Newton, 2007, 123).
His research identified a subset of criminal that he named Habitual Criminals. These were criminals prone to petty acts of crime, that they were not born criminal but reverted to primal tendencies due to poor education or training. This Criminal he believed was capable of rehabilitation. (Newton, 207, 123)
Lombroso believed that criminals deserved humane treatment although they should be removed from society for their own sake as well as societies. He advocated against capital punishment.
Both Bacarria and Lombrosso are considered to be the founding fathers of criminology, although neither ever used the term.
In conclusion, both Scientists were producing radical theories that argued the Nature or Nurture question within criminology. In comparison, however, both Theorists regarded Crime as secular and agreed that humane not barbaric treatment of offenders was the answer to reducing criminal activity in Society. Bacarria and Lombroso’s theories overlap slightly in one subset of offenders, the habitual criminals, as Lombroso believed that they were the only offenders capable of rehabilitation.
The contrasting theories differed in Beccaria and Lombroso’s approach to researching their theories. Baccaria looked at the offence and argued that crimes were born from free-will and that punishment and rehabilitation would reduce Crime in society. He believed that nurture was the underlying cause Whereas, Lombroso looked at the Offender and believed that criminals were acting out their predetermined inherited nature and that treatment would reduce Crime therefore nature was the cause.
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About Team Building
INTRODUCTION
Team building is the route toward changing a gathering of individual contributing agents into a firm group. A team is a social affair of people sifted through to collaborate reliantly and supportively to address the issues of their customers by accomplishing their inspiration and goals (Heathfield, 2019). Team Building involves 4 steps which are Forming, Storming, Norming and Performing. The Forming stage involves affiliation when the team members get to know each other. Then comes the storming stage where team members have conflicts, criticism, and challenge for a bid for leadership. It is then followed by the norming stage where the team is starting to be more organized, set rules and unwritten norms and focus more on achievement collectively as a group instead of individual motives. The final stage is known as performing which involves building a synergy within the team by being flexible, open, helping each other and accepting flaws of each other and celebrating them.
TUCKMAN’S STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Bruce Tuckman developed a model in order to explain the team building process. It is known as Tuckman’s Stages of group development. He showed the team effectiveness in proportion with performing impact throughout the different stages of group development and shows that the curve goes down at the beginning, but then rises steadily until the stage where the team is adjourned
DYSFUNCTIONS OF TEAMS BY ROBERT LENCIONI
Robert Lencioni provides the reasons for dysfunction of teams by demonstrating a pyramid and gives the different blocks of the pyramid from bottom to the top as following:
• Inattention to results
• Avoidance of Accountability
• Lack of Commitment
• Fear of Conflict
• Absence of Trust
4 COLOR TYPOLOGY BY CARL-GUSTAV JUNG
This theory states that everyone has a color which defines their personality and analyses these 4 colors namely Blue, Green, Yellow and Red through a question-based test which decides the type of color one is. The blue and green colors are for the people who are more introverted, whereas the colors Red and Yellow represent the extroverted people. There are different things to keep in mind when dealing with the respective colors. For example- Blue people like to keep distance and maintain eye contact, so forcing ideas onto people who fall into this group is a definite no-go.
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Public Policy- Relevant Topic for Businesses
Introduction
In recent years, the political environment has become more complex and dynamic owing to increased political action by constituents (Oliver & Holzinger, 2008, p. 504). Since 1945, most Western European countries started integrating social partners, employers’ and workers’ organizations in policymaking. Magone (2001, p. 15) concludes, that these have become more heavily involved in the legislative process in the areas of employment and social policy, particularly at a supranational level. These interest groups seem to have a closer relationship to national governments in Europe than in the United States. Some of the most important characteristics include continuing consultation with relevant economic and social partners, so-called tripartite agreements. The three relevant partners are the governments, trade unions and main business organizations. This paper aims to discuss the importance of corporate political strategies, thereby focusing on European countries.
The remainder of this paper is structured in the following way. Firstly, the influences of corporate political strategies on firm performance are examined. Secondly, strategies that can be used to influence public policy are presented and evaluated. Next, corporate political strategies are put into a wider societal-political context. Lastly, the paper is concluded by answering the problem statement.
Influences on Firm Performance
Levering Uncertainties
“Because government policies have significant effects on the competitive environment of firms, many firms are expanding their efforts to affect public policy decisions” (Hillmann & Hitt, 1999, p. 825). Governments and government policies present significant uncertainties for firms. The economy is influenced by a variety of government policies and public goods provided by the government. Figge (2018, p. 4-5) gives a range of examples, these include competition policy and fines, regulation on markets, products services and pollution, fiscal policy, subsidies and taxation but also education, infrastructure and health, legislative power, law enforcement and dispute settlement and economic stability. Thoughtful strategic political management can help firms levering these uncertainties and improving their competitive advantage and performance. It goes without saying that business who do not understand the political environment may be at a comparative disadvantage. Oliver & Holzinger (2008, p. 496) describe firm relations to governments as a way to earn economic rents by leveraging firms’ strategic assets and competencies in their respective areas of concern. This can be done in a variety of ways, aiming for favorable policy decisions such as tax cuts, infrastructure programs, barriers to entry or the setting of price levels. Researchers continually argue that large firms seem to gain higher rewards from political strategies, partly owing to their larger financial resources but also their importance to national interests.
Interdependence between interest groups and decision-makers
Public policy is a complicated process with various parties involved at different stages. A variety of interest group promotes their ideas to policymakers. By working collectively towards a common goal, businesses try to secure their own interests in maintaining and creating value. However, public policymaking usually works by making compromises to various opinions. Firms are more likely to engage in political strategies when they view political issues as conspicuous. However, those advantages are not limited to the politically active firms but can be understood as interdependence. While businesses need to access the policymaking institutions, these bodies demand information relevant to decision-making. Individual businesses and organizations are capable of providing expert knowledge of the market environment and external factors affecting industries.
Means to Influence Public Policy
Dynamic Capabilities
Oliver & Holzinger (2008, p. 505) mention two means by which firms can take advantage of political opportunities; firms can either actively influence their political environment or can actively comply with public policies or regulations, trying to derive as much value as possible. Further, they argue that in an increasingly complex and dynamic political environment, dynamic capabilities may allow firms to capitalize quickly on political opportunities and to generate unique sources of economic rent in a changing public policy. Consequentially, a firms’ dynamic capabilities play a big role in determining the effects of political strategies on firm performance and competitive advantage.
Approaches to Political Action
Businesses can use a variety of political tactics to make their voice heard. These include but are not limited to lobbying, advocacy advertising, constituency building, financial contributions, and coalition formation. Hillmannn & Hitt (1999, p. 825) present a model of approach, participation and strategy decisions to political actions. Firms need to first decide on their general approach to political action. The authors distinguish between the transactional and relational approach. The two approaches differ in length and scope of continued activity and exchange. While firms using the transactional theory only build a strategy to tackle issues after a public policy issue is developed, in contrast, firms using the relational approach pursue long-term political strategies by building relationships. The authors (Hillmann & Hitt, 1999, p.829) further argue that the use of relational approaches is growing for domestic and multinational firms. The second decision concerns two levels of participation, an individual action which is understood as a singular effort by individual companies, or collective action which refers to collaboration and cooperation of two or more firms, in a trade or business association, in the public policymaking process. After having decided on the approach and participation, businesses must decide on the specific strategies and tactics to tackle the process. Hillmann & Hitt (1999, p. 833) present three different forms of participation. Firms can either use an information strategy which tackles the general public or alternatively the financial incentive or constituency-building strategy that both focus on the political actors in the policymaking process.
Lobbying as a Corporate political Strategy
Lobbying is often perceived as the most present corporate political strategy. Gu©guen (2007, p. 117) describes four strategic options in European lobbying. While lobbying and public policymaking are essentially not the same, the two terms are often used interchangeably. While negative lobbying strategies oppose, block and refuse policies, they do not propose any credible alternatives and are therefore doomed to fail. Negative lobbying is regularly used in industries that depend on heavy subsidies from the governments. Defensive lobbying strategies try to defend the advantages that were gained but oppose evolution in the legislation. Gueguen (2007, p. 122) further argues that if defensive actions last for too long they also lead to failure. Several European trade associations use reactive lobbying strategies. Common behavior includes waiting, taking no action, and having no strategy. The most successful strategy seems to be pro-active lobbying grounded in strong personal involvement, strong convictions and focus on results. Moreover, pro-active lobbying strategies can either be hostile or friendly, targeting different stages of the decision-making process.
Public Policy in Corporatist and Pluralist Environments
As described earlier in the paper, businesses must make several decisions while formulating their public policy strategies. One of the most important factors that has not been mentioned so far is the system of interest intermediation. Magone (2011, p. 486) distinguishes between neocorporatist, a well-regulated inclusive system in which social partners work with the government and pluralism, which provides less-regulated competition between interest groups, and lobbying is understood as a major way to win influence. European countries, which mostly promote neocorporatist systems, seem to have a closer relationship with businesses, compared to the United States. Businesses in pluralist countries usually use more aggressive ways of making their voice heard and gaining influence. Magone (2011, p.486) further mentions the European social model, which includes continuing consultation, between main business organizations, trade unions and the government. Consequentially, these organizations and social partners have become central to the continuous development and implementation of policies. As the European Union is trying to integrate and seek common agreements, corporate public policies aim more at European decision-makers, compared to national governments before. During recent years, the supranational level has become the preferred point of contact.
Conclusion
As could be seen in this paper, public policymaking is a very relevant topic for businesses. It goes without saying that government decisions represent significant uncertainties and therefore have severe effects on firm performance and behavior. Consequentially, businesses try to shape public policy by levering these uncertainties and earn economic rents. Businesses can either actively influence their political environment or actively comply with regulations. Hence, they can use a variety of political tools to participate in the decision-making process, where lobbying is by far the most known political strategy. Most European countries promote neocorporatist systems with close relationships with various interest groups. As the European integration deepened, corporate political strategies have moved from national to supranational levels. European institutions, in contrast to the United States, conduct very open conversations with businesses as these need input for effective policy-making.
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Public Policy: Housing Affordability, Boom and Crisis
As Milligan & Tiernan have commented (2011, 391), affordable housing and its provision is “vital to economic participation and productivity”:
Secure, affordable housing is essential to employment and educational outcomes and it has been an important source of investment and wealth creation, especially for Australian households who own their own homes ...
The promise of being able to provide affordable home ownership was especially important in shaping Australian nationhood. By 1941, over half of Australians owned their own homes, and home ownership was central to postwar nation-building (Millegan & Tiernan 2011: 391-392). By 1981, 73% of adult Australians owned their own homes. (Dalton 2009: 65) Importantly, home ownership was an ‘Australian dream’ which included individuals from across a wide range of income groups (Beer 1993: 147). Post-war Australia could pride itself on being ”a unique wage earner’s welfare state that was centred on mass homeownership”, in favorable contrast to other nations (Milligan & Pinnegar 2010: 326).
As has been well-documented, by 2018 this is no longer so. Indeed, between 1981 and 2018, as (for example) the recent Grattan Institute report Reimaging the Australian Dream documents (Daley et al 2018), the picture has changed almost completely. Housing ownership as a whole has declined to something around 67%. Yet, since 1995, house prices have risen and risen by the staggering figure of about 5% a year—and from about 4 times median income to over 7 times that figure today (Daley et al 2018: 15-16). In capital cities, the rises have been most rapid, hiking about 30% in Melbourne and Sydney since the end of 2014 alone (Daley et al 2018: 16-17): effectively meaning that many properties in these cities are ‘earning’ more per annum than many low-income Australians.
To put these things in perspective, average household income rose about 10 times between 1975 and 2015: a figure which roughly tracks the consumer price index. In that time, house prices rose by something around 30 times (Mia 2015). In February 2015, the average house price in Sydney was around $850000, well over ten times median annual income. Melbourne’s median house price was about $615000 (Mia 2015). By 2018, this Melburnian figure has surpassed that of Sydney in 2015, while Sydney’s median price is presently over $1 million (Duke 2018).
As a result, Australian spending on housing has hiked after 1980. From around 10% of total pre-tax household income at that time, it is presently around 14% in early-mid 2018 (Daley, Coates, Wiltshire, Percival & Robertson 2018, 14). More than ever, this expenditure is given over to paying down mortgage debt. The figures here are again troubling: from around 70% of household disposable income in 2000, housing debt is now more than 130%. Total household debt as of 2018 is around 190% of household after-tax income (Daley, Coates, Wiltshire, Percival & Robertson 2018, 87; Soos 2016), a situation that has caught the concerned attention of international institutions (Soos 2015). In 2014, for example, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) sent an economic team to Australia to examine “the risks posed by property speculation and record-high household debt as part of a broad health check-up of the sagging domestic economy” (Fin. Review.2018) By late 2014, Australian homes were rated the third-least affordable of OECD countries’, behind New Zealand and Canada. By 2015, Australia’s housing was the second least affordable globally, following only Hong Kong (Janda 2016).
There are serious equity implications here—by which we mean social, as well as financial equity. It is not just that the steepest house price increases have occurred amongst lower-price housing stocks, as against houses in the higher ‘deciles’ (Daley 2018: 85). This is creating the kind of situation described last month in an Anglicare report on housing affordability for people on benefits in Sydney, suggesting that nearly no houses are affordable in that metropole for the most disadvantaged (Anglicare 2018). More than this, the period of the ‘housing boom’, as it is sometimes called, has seen an unprecedented intergenerational transfer of wealth: “a once-off change that is unlikely to recur to help younger generations” (Daley et al 2018: *). Rates of home-ownership rates among 25-34 year olds have plummeted. It is of course normal that the young should own less than older demographics. Yet in 1981, more than 60% of 25-34 year olds owned their own homes in Australia, as against only 48% by 2011. By 2018, the figure for 25-34s is around 45%, still going South. Grattan Institute research suggests that while 65-74 year olds were $480,000 wealthier in real terms in 2016, as against 2002, in the same period, 25-34s’ wealth has stagnated (Daley, Coates, Wiltshire, Percival & Robertson 2018: *).
Of course, multiple factors underlie these figures. Yet the principal factor is the rise in the price of the deposits necessary to enter the market. Whereas in the early 1990s it took six years to save a 20% deposit for an average-cost home, by 2018, it now will take around ten years for a middle-income Australian household to raise the capital for a deposit (Daley, Coates, Wiltshire, Percival & Robertson 2018: *). As a result, there are intragenerational equity effects emerging too, as increasing numbers of younger Australians are forced to rely on their wealthier parents (‘the bank of dad/mum’) to enter the market: a situation which favours some young Australians over others.
In these circumstances, it is unsurprising that more Australians are renting for longer. Around 2.6 million Australians, or just under one third, were renting privately by 2016; another extraordinary jump from just 12% as late as the mid-1990s. Rental prices have increased less rapidly than housing prices. Yet lower-income households presently spend a larger proportion of income on rent than previous generations of tenants, and miss out on the taxation benefits in place for owners and landlords (*). Again, this is especially the case in the big capitals, where the proportion of low-income renters allocating more than 30% of their gross income on rents (and as such, considered to be suffering ‘housing stress’) increased from 36% in 2007 to 47% by 2015-16 (*). Some Australian renters benefit from Commonwealth Rent Assistance. But, as Reimagining the Australian Dream comments:
this is less than 6% of the total housing benefits that governments provide. By contrast, home-owners and investors receive more than 90% of the benefits of major housing policies (Daley, Coates, Wiltshire, Percival & Robertson 2018:*).
The last decades in Australia have seen what Milligan and Pinnegar (2011: 326) call a longstanding “retraction of national action on housing in Australia”, if not what Dalton (2007) terms a “retrenchment”. By 1986 and financial deregulation, previous Federal governments’ direct support for low-income homeowners and first homebuyers, plus publicly-regulated mortgage interest rates, had all been all scrapped. Direct state government provision of social housing had begun to flatline, so that while in the last two decades the population has grown by some 33%, the stock of public housing remains at around 400,000. (Daley et al 2018: 62; Jacobs, Berry, & Dalton 2013; Hayward 1996) In response to a rise in low-income renters experiencing effective poverty after meeting accommodation expenses, the Hawke-Keating government introduced a direct rental assistance program. Yet the same ALP government also introduced ‘negative gearing’: the ability to deduct losses on an investment property from taxable income at the marginal rate. Ostensibly a means to stimulate private investment in rental housing, this policy is now agreed to be one source of Australia’s continuing, extraordinary house-price inflation. By 2014-15, figures suggest that 1.3 million Australian landlords reported collective losses of $11 billion on investment properties, representing (amongst other things) a significant loss in federal tax revenue (Daley et al 2018: 36).
The Howard years (1996-2007), coinciding with historic mining and real estate booms, saw Federal government intervention in housing policy rolled back. The Howard government’s 1999 reform of capital gains tax (CGT) on the sale of owner-occupied homes added fuel to the inflationary fire. (Daley et al 2018: 36-37) According to this reform, tax is levied on only 50% of the nominal capital gain on any asset, including houses, held for more than one year: Treasury in 2017 estimated that it “benefits home-owners to the tune of $35 billion per year” (Daley et al 2018: 35 n. 109) and motivates demand for home ownership, conceived as itself a form of investment. In response to concerns following the introduction of the GST, Mr Howard also introduced the First Home Owners Grant (FHOG) in 2000: albeit without either an income test for claimants or any upper limit on the purchase price of homes (Tiernan & Burke 2002: 94; Burke & Tulse 2010: 834; Eslake 2013). Little was however done on the supply-side, to balance these demand-side reforms. Immigration into Australia has increased substantially from around 2005, and Australia’s population has grown since that time by around 350,000 people per year, up from around 220,000 per annum the previous decade. (Daley et al 2018: 45) But new housing stock, especially for lower-income renters and buyers—and especially in the capitals where population growth has been most rapid—has failed to keep up (Daley et al 2018: 43-45). Indeed, for much of the decade from 2005-14, annual housing construction did not even match the average rates of the previous quarter-century. (Daley et al 2018: 43) Economic data suggests that a 10% increase in dwelling prices tends to lead to an increase in the stock of new housing of only 3-5% in Australia —an ‘inelasticity’ of supply effected by often-clunky State and local-government zoning laws, and by the resistance of residents to higher-density dwellings in their suburbs (Daley et al 2018: 43, 103, 133).
The Rudd years (2007-2010) saw a brief “comeback” for housing policy issues to the federal agenda (Milligan & Pinnegar 2011): the return of a dedicated Housing Minister, the 2009 establishment of the NAHA (National Affordable Housing Agreement) (Milligan & Tannegar 2010: 329); and the NRAS (National Rental Affordability Scheme) providing subsidies to stimulate building of low-cost rental accommodation (Milligan & Tiernan 2011: 400-403). Yet, with the ascension of Julia Gillard in June 2010, the Housing Ministry was again scrapped. Meanwhile, the NRAS, dogged by implementation issues (loc cit.) was shelved and has not been restored under Abbott and Turnbull’s Coalition governments. Today, issues surrounding homelessness, public housing, housing affordability and planning remain dispersed across multiple portfolios, and uneasily contested between the Commonwealth and State governments (Milligan & Tinnegar 2011: 339). The proportion of Australian dwellings with subsidised rental has not increased, but actually fallen from the mid-1990s peak to under 5% today (Daley et al 2018: 62-63). As we will comment below, housing affordability became an election issue in 2016, as Bill Shorten’s ALP took a proposal to roll back negative gearing to the polls. Despite the organised opposition we will address in due course, this remains the ALPs position in the lead-up to the 2018/19 vote, but remains opposed by the Coalition.
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City Centre Housing Growth and Public Policy
Many cities in Britain have struggled to keep pace with the demand for housing, as they have sought to rebalance economies. This especially true in Northern cities who must accommodate growth while continuing to tackle the structural legacy of their industrial pasts. The government recognises how important vibrant city economies are to sustainable growth and have struck 'city deals' with the eight core cities (with more to come). These deals devolve power and investment to local authorities in return for coherent and imaginative growth programmes founded on partnership and strong leadership. (Paul Brant, 2012)
Benefits and Drawbacks of larger city centre populations
Cities centres are constantly growing all over the world. This is due to cities usually being the social, business and cultural hub of most countries. The increase in population within city centres brings several benefits: Economic growth by having a better and more diverse workforce, better infrastructure and developments which is needed in order to cater for the influx of people and better and more imaginative use of land as it is finite.
Large populations in a city centre could potentially lead to overcrowding. It can also create ‘segregation and spatial concentrations of poverty.’ (Catherine Glossop 2008). Big cities tend to have good job opportunities, however with a big influx of people, this could potentially become a problem as there will be numerous people competing for a single job.
An example of a city which has grown rapidly is Manchester. After the deindustrialisation era, the city centre has been booming in all sectors. However there have been many problems with all this growth affecting the housing sector. More than 15,000 affordable homes have been built however, none of the homes being built are truly ‘affordable’. This has been a growing concern and will be discussed further. (Pidd, H. 2018)
In Contrast, Leeds had thousands of affordable homes left empty waiting for demand to increase. Demand increased rapidly and now the glut of affordable housing has disappeared and demand now outweighs the supply of affordable housing.
At a public hearing, Leeds city council housing plans were labelled as a “catastrophic failure” in building affordable housing. The government has given Leeds a target of around 50,000 new houses to build. A panel of politicians, developers and members of the public assembled at Civic Hall to discuss the site allocations plan, which will decide where the new houses will be built. (West Leeds dispatch, 2018).
The Growth of city centre Housing in Manchester
After the de-industrialisation of Manchester, there was a need to re-think the regeneration of Manchester city centre. This included the growth of housing to accommodate the influx of people. Furthermore, with more and more people attending Manchester Universities from around the UK but also from overseas, Manchester needed to create accommodation to cater for the influx of students.
Manchester has grown at a rapid rate in terms of the housing sector. This was due to the clever strategical policy to apply for funding from the EU which didn’t only cover the housing sector but also investment in businesses, job opportunities, educational facilities and many others. Manchester has received over £136million in funding from the EU alone in 2016. however, this will potentially change in the forthcoming months due to the possible withdrawal from the EU. (Shelina begum 2016)
The introduction of the permitted development rights could potentially cause problems. Planning laws in favour of residential developments, (offices being turned into accommodation) could severely affect the supply of commercial space if Manchester’s city centre economy continues recent strong growth. (Paul Swinney 2016)
The ‘Right to Buy’ policy is also a problem when looking at city centre growth. In September there was a call to suspend ‘Right to buy’ policy in Greater Manchester as 5,000 council houses were sold off and no replacements built.
Leeds has around 64,000 council houses. In 1980, the Thatcher Government introduced the 'right to buy' for council tenants, offering tenants their homes at knock-down prices. More than 27,000 homes have been sold: houses which would have been available to people unable to afford to buy a home. The effect of the sales has been worsened by soaring private property prices, leaving even more people unable to buy. Now there are 30,000 people in Leeds waiting for a council home more suited to their needs or waiting for a first council home – just a few more than the number of homes sold under 'right to buy.' (Katie Baldwin, 2005)
Key Drivers for Growth and increased Housing Demand
One of the key drivers of growth in Manchester city centre has been by young professionals and the private sector. Manchester city centre economy has had a resurgence after the de-industrialisation.
Another key driver relates to decisions on how space is used across a city. People value amenities differently at different stages of their lives, and this means that they choose to live in different parts of a city – be that the city centre, the suburbs or the fringes of a city. This means that the geography that planning decisions are taken should stretch across a city, rather than individual local authorities. (Paul Swinney 2016)
Manchester is trying to become an interconnected thriving city which has sustained growth. The demand for housing in Manchester has increased due to the price of land. Furthermore, people and businesses are paying extortionate amounts of money in order to live and work in central London, resulting in many people and businesses being pushed out of London to cheaper cities like Manchester, Birmingham and Leeds. This was due to, as said before, price of land being cheaper but also lower operating costs helping companies increase their profitability.
The supply of housing has changed drastically however, demand still out strips the supply of housing due to a large influx of people wanting to locate in Manchester city centre. This will include the movement of companies and more and more students attending the various universities in Manchester city centre.
What role should government and policy play?
The government needs to implement a housing policy which is more responsive to the local economic development. The role of housing policy is to help regenerate areas which are below the national housing standards. Away from London, the Core Cities group of local authorities—comprising (in England) Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Nottingham and Sheffield, and recently augmented by Glasgow (in Scotland) and Cardiff (in Wales)—have sought to position their areas as drivers of regional growth (Core Cities, 2013 cited by Houston and Fothergill 2016).
To deliver their vision, the Core Cities group have called for the extensive devolution of powers and finance from central government to their areas. ‘Cities drive growth and the way we run them shapes the economy’ claim the (Core Cities 2013, p.5).
Are there are any problems associated with city centre housing development?
There are several problems which associate with city centre housing developments, including overcrowding and demographic changes. The housing policy in Manchester is being questioned as people are concerned that the city centre is being dominated by apartments for urban professionals and people from a lower income demographic are being pushed outwards.
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Public Policy Essay (the Hog Poisoning)
My topic for this policy essay is the hog poisoning mentioned in the week 11 podcast approximately 11 minutes in. This topic is an important issue because of the severe economic and social havoc these wild hogs bring. It is relevant specifically to Texas because of the large number of these beasts and the ineffective methods of thinning their numbers. The hog numbers in Texas have grown too large, the economic problems this infestation is creating needs addressing; the new poison that Sid Miller is proposing would cull the population. Although the hogs killed by this poison aren’t safe to eat and need special disposal there is enough warning on the packaging that ensures the safe handling of these carcasses.
There are currently 1.5 million hogs in Texas, this means that there is an overpopulation of hogs in the state. The hogs are tearing up crops and competing with the native wildlife for limited resources in the wild. Because they live just about everywhere in Texas the damage they cause is reason for serious concern. They are also capable of reproducing very rapidly taking about 3.5 months for pregnant sows to give birth, the average litter size is 5. Their destructive nature causes $50 million worth of damage to crops alone. They also can potentially infect domestic pigs and in some extreme cases they have been said to alter the landscape around them digging for food. Their size and aggression is also cause for concern as they are very dangerous to humans and the native wildlife in the state. Something must be done to control the hog infestation in Texas.
These hogs are very hardy and don’t have many predators due to their tough hide meaning that alternative methods are needed to deal with them. The poison proposed by Ag Commissioner Sid Miller would go a great distance in thinning the feral hog numbers. This poison works effectively on the hogs by starving them of oxygen thus making them uncoordinated then pass out before eventually dying, the symptoms resemble those of carbon dioxide poisoning. The entire process only takes about 90 minutes. This is a fairly humane way of putting down the hogs compared to other methods like tannerite. This poison in conjunction with continued hunting would be the most cost efficient option for the state.
An argument against the poison is that the methods for disposing of the affected hogs are too difficult for the average Texan. The poison comes with a label that contains information on how to deal with the deceased hogs. I believe the government should provide some sort of financial restitution to those that place the poison on their lands just to help cover the price of disposal as it requires that all dead hogs be buried 16 inches. Another protest against the poison is the potential for the poisoned hogs to be eaten after teach. Due to the chemicals in the poison the hog meat actually takes a blue color so distinguishing bad meat shouldn’t be too difficult.
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Effective Public Policy
Effective public policy carefully evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the policy design process by using various leadership theories as a framework. Additionally, policies indicate the individual role leadership plays in managing policy design, operation, implementation, and analysis within a governing body. It explores the role of the practitioner-scholar in the development of community issues, as well as the role of public service leaders in fostering and maintaining appropriate and robust community relationships to address problems through the implementation of laws and budgets(Bardach & Patashnik, 2015). Then, it briefly summarizes the basic tenets of both ethical behavior and diversity in public service leadership to create effective policies that address the needs of a leaders’ constituents. It concludes with a brief description of the most pertinent issues and standards public service leaders must be privy to succeed in creating meaningful public policy and being good civil servants (Pressman & Wildavsky, 1984).
The characteristics of public policies vary, greatly, depending on personality, environment, culture, and task at hand. However, several basic theories can be used to assess the strengths and weaknesses of leadership characteristics as they apply to public needs. Transformational Leadership Theory highly values leaders who develop social values and individual purpose of addressing problems within their communities(Bardach & Patashnik, 2015). According to Palle (2006), affirmative policies include moral integrity, an ability and willingness to stand up for what is right, regardless of the situation, a strict and clearly defined set of standards and beliefs, and personal motivation and dedication(Cline, 2008). These attributes are admirable because they promote a set rule that the rest of the workforce can follow.
Furthermore, they include virtues, such as fairness and equality. On the other hand, critics note that leaders who adhere too strictly to these norms and standards are idealistic (as opposed to realistic) and frequently too rigid to adopt policies to changing or emergencies (Palle, 2006). Despite its weaknesses, an appropriate approach to policy-making includes positive leadership qualities and proven theories on leadership (Stillman & Richard, 1991).
The Trait Theory looks at three specific areas – abilities, personal traits, and motivators – and highlights important characteristics policymakers should display for each category to effective management policies(Moore, 1995). For capabilities, admiral traits include the ability to supervise, intelligence, and initiative. The personal traits leaders should demonstrate include self-assurance, decisiveness, and maturity. Finally, lauded motivational characteristics include the want to self-actualize, obtain power over others, secure high financial rewards, and garnish job security(Pralle, 2006). While these traits are indeed helpful for some situations, opponents to Trait Theory point out that these traits are not conducive to public service laws(Bosso, 1994). For instance, financial gain and power are typically not very prominent in this field. Instead, commitment to a common good and humanitarian causes might be more appropriate motivational factors to creating policy. On the other hand, by and large, the personal traits and abilities are more conducive to public policies that benefit all of society(Bosso, 1994).
In the field of public service, leaders play a crucial role in managing changes in policy administration and explain how critical analysis of a problem needs to be solved by law. Pralle (2006) notes that the public service field, perhaps more than most other areas, is continually changing, evolving and developing due to changes in a particular target group or elected governing body in a specific time. As these needs change, leadership has to be able to help the rest of the workforce make the necessary adaptations to their modus operandi (Bardach & Patashnik, 2015). Unfortunately, change is hard and intimidating for most leaders. Once in a routine, few people will want to break stride and change their course of direction(Pralle, 2006) Not only must public service leaders identify changing needs, analyze the situation, and enact and implement actionable plans, they must help their subordinates adapt to these changes to keep a fair and orderly governing agency (Warner, 2001). Public service policies highlight that communication is the key. If public service leaders want necessary policy changes to occur smoothly and efficiently, they have to establish a line of open communication with their subordinates. Not only should they explain, in precise detail, the changes, but they also have to justify these changes (Majone & Wildavsky, 1984). The workforce must know why these changing are occurring so that they can see the big picture and the ultimate goals.
Additionally, research emphasizes that communication has to go both ways for a policy to be effective. The administrators must include all vested parties within the process. Workers should be allowed to ask questions, provide input, and have their concerns heard and recognized(Stewart et al., 2007). Leaders must lead by example and help their subordinates critically analyze policies to gain an understand of why implementing the changes are vital to society.
The practitioner-scholar is in a unique position because they not only study theories and basic leadership principles used in policy making but the witness, firsthand, how these theories and principles play out in everyday life and real-world situations (May 1992). The practitioner-scholar is not only required to learn the various leadership theories, but they must also be able to apply these theories to the governor body to see if proposed legislation are practical and applicable(Stewart et al., 2007). A practitioner-scholar is both the researcher and the person implementing the findings. Through understanding leadership theories and applying them to actual workplace situations, the practitioner-scholar can modify the method to fit the environment and current problem (Schneider & Ingram, 1997). The research not only helps to develop leadership skills in the practitioner-scholar, but it also aids the more significant public service community. Policymakers gain insight into what works for various types of situations by examining the research findings and critically addressing the usefulness of the results (Schneider & Ingram, 1997).
Public policy, as the name suggests, involves the whole governing body of a community or state legislature to make effective laws and implement the legislation (May 1992). .The branches of government will decide on policy decisions that influence everyday life. Therefore, policymaking is multidisciplinary in focus and requires leaders who can bridge the gaps and unite many, seemingly unrelated, community members and sectors of the public(Stewart et al., 2007). Public service leaders play a vital role in networking with their larger community to ensure that all departments and divisions are working together for the common good. Research rightfully points out that no one public service is an island; instead, all public service sectors must be able to coordinate to provide the best services possible to their communities(Cline, 2008).
Public services leaders are responsible for understanding what their communities have to offer and building the relationships necessary within the branches of government to help the public obtain the services and benefits available to them(Rohr, 2001). For example, a state representative would need to build relationships with the local homeless shelters, community donation centers, food banks, housing authority, and general healthcare agencies to obtain data to service their needs. Then, they would be able to guide their elected officials in the right direction and maximize their chances of success in getting the adequate funding necessary for the organization to succeed (Duffy, 1997).
Probably the five most essential tenets of ethical leadership and policy-making include: respecting the opinions, worldviews, beliefs, and values of others; putting others first through servant-leadership; showing justice and fairness instead of favoritism; manifesting integrity and honesty; and building a safe and secure community where all people can thrive and grow. Public service leaders must be able to create and maintain a governing body that includes all of these basic ethical norms and standards (Newton, 2005). To ensure a proper work environment, public service leaders must be very astute to issues of diversity and inclusion. Duffy (1997) notes that many times, leaders inflict their own, narrow worldview onto everyone and does not foster the individuality of people within a community. Diversity should be applauded and cultivated within legalization. The research and implementation of policy can be done by honoring and respecting all people and trying to include more diverse individuals into the decision team(Pressman & Wildavsky, 1984). Leaders who genuinely show respect for diversity and aim to cover a wide range of people into their workforce, typically, are more productive and create an environment with policies designed to ensure people within a community are free to express themselves, their ideas, and their opinions without the fear of reprisal or not getting reflected(Rohr, 2001). In sum, a commitment to the individual worth and dignity of every citizen is relevant to effective public service leadership and legislation.
Affordance and algorithms are used to determine the language and scope of a policy to ensure fairness and equality within society (Stillman & Richard, 1991). Affordance is an assessment of the physical characteristics of products used in a procedure which influence its function. In other words, individual objects are better for specific environments and situations. An algorithm is a double-edged sword – it has both positive and negative aspects. Probably, the most positive point is that the algorithm is efficient. It is the last step in the knowledge model in policy design(Bardach & Patashnik, 2015). Once policymakers get to the algorithm phase, they focus on setting specific goals and rules. Leaders need to focus on attention on the set rules which can establish progress. The use of algorithms and affordance will enable policies to be enacted quickly and efficiently(Bardach & Patashnik, 2015). Little human thinking needs to take place after an Algorithm. Everything needs a detailed plan which, once followed, allows the governing body to run smoothly, effectively, and efficiently(Newton, 2005).
There are negative aspects to using algorithms for the policy decision. One negative point is that once something reaches the state of an algorithm, there is no judgment left. Removal of the human element causes mathematical equations to take its place(Stillman & Richard, 1991). Removal of the thought process means that creativity and intuition Rare completely disregarded in exchange for formulas. Individualized needs of a community could be left out, and it does not take into account for diversity issues among people living in a specific area(Stone, 2011). There is no one size fits all design to making policies. Every policymaker has different sets of criteria to examine based on the needs of their constituents and region they service(Bardach & Patashnik, 2015). Also, to get to an algorithm, many factors need to be left out. Algorithms simplify information to a manageable level; however, some of the left out information is very relevant. Omitting relevant facts, in turn, can cause algorithms to fail to fulfill their purpose of creating fair and balanced policies(Bardach & Patashnik, 2015).
Schneider & Ingram (1997) suggests that one way create fair policies is to incorporate intuitive thinking even though it is biased and influenced by popular public opinion. Elected officials will campaign on policy platforms, and popular vote will decide which candidate to the governing body (Schneider & Ingram, 1997). The platforms are the candidate's ideas of how government should function and what type of legislation is needed. Lawmakers not required to present valid facts to support their claims or ideas for new policies. Drawbacks to this type of policy are lack of validity and oversight of research design needed for effective policy making(Schneider & Ingram, 1997).
Effective policymaking involves analytical thinking – which attempts to achieve reliability – and there is intuitive thinking – which tries to achieve validity (Schneider & Ingram, 1997). Each type of policy thinking has its place and should be based on current research and critically examining the success rate of similar policies. Analytic thinking is excellent for honing and refining knowledge, but it is not good for moving between the mystery phase and the algorithm phase of policy design and implementation because it involves intuitive thinking which is less reliable (Duffy, 1997).
Ultimately, the practitioner-scholar model allows the leader to not only study theory, but apply it to the actual governing body and policymaking. Of course, it is pertinent for government leaders to understand leadership theory to create effective policies (Pralle, 2006). Good leaders know the various leadership models, can see the connection between themselves and the broader community, can identify the tenets of ethical behavior, diversity, and inclusion, and can motivate their subordinates towards accomplishing a common goal(Stivers, 1994). However, knowledge in these areas is one thing; applying this knowledge to pass legislation is quite another. That is why the “practitioner” portion is vital. This aspect gives the individual an opportunity to see how the policy works – or fails to work – in real life for all types of people(.Pralle, 2006) Through trial and error, practitioner-leaders can hone in their techniques and alter their approaches to maximize the benefit of policies and the effectiveness of budgets. (Stone, 2011). This balanced relationship is the key to successful government and laws, especially in the diversified public sector.
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Public Policy and Health
Overview
Obesity remains as one of the most preventable diseases in the developed countries, and its prevalence continues to increase not only in affluent societies but also in developing countries (Segula 2014). The ease of accessibility and availability of food has contributed to the increasing prevalence of obesity and the obesogenic environment. The highest prevalence of obesity rates across Europe was recorded in the United Kingdom (U.K) (The Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (2017). By 2030, approximately half of its population will be obese (National Health Service 2011).
The scale of the obesity problem is apparent by its statistics where approximately two-thirds of adults (63%) in England are classified as being overweight or obese. Furthermore, in a span of 22 years (1983-2015), the prevalence of obesity has risen from 14.9% to 26.9% (Public Health England 2017a). In terms of childhood obesity, a quarter of children aged 2 to 10 and one-third of 11 to 15 are obese or overweight. Obesity is of a growing public health concern due to its health implications associated with it which include diabetes, heart disease and stroke. This ultimately cause reduction in quality of life, poorer mental health and premature deaths worldwide (National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion 2018).
Younger generation are becoming obese and are more likely to develop non-communicable diseases such as diabetes at younger age (Sahoo et al. 2015). According to Freedman et al. (2001), 80% of childhood obesity is likely to persist into adulthood, indicating how early life factors play a critical role for healthy development and reduced health risks in later life. This has caused the National Health Service (NHS) at least £5.1 billion and tens of billions to UK society annually and is expected to rise to £8.3 billion in 2025 and £9.7 billion in 2050 (Baker 2018).
Target Population
Disparities in health can not only be seen in adults but also children despite advances in medical technology and global wealth, indicating those who are at a socioeconomic disadvantage will experience the greatest disease burden (Allen and Sesti 2018). Birmingham’s population is significantly diverse in terms of ethnic composition whereby one-third of ethnic minority groups account for the city’s population with Pakistanis being the largest ethnic minority group (10.6%), followed by Indians (5.8%) and Black Caribbean (4.4%) (Cangiano 2008). Evidence from research shows that, on average, individuals from minority ethnic backgrounds showcase greater levels of poor health compared to general population counterparts, indicating the greatest socioeconomic disadvantage groups will experience the greatest disease burden (Barry and Yuill 2011 and Strong, Maheswaran and Radford 2006). Therefore, giving children the best start in life is crucial in order to improve health and reduce health inequalities. Moreover, children at this age experience huge physical, psychological and behavioural changes as they mature and transition from children to young adults. This transitional period is critical as it allows unique opportunities for social determinants to affect health (Viner et al. 2012)
Hence, the target population is children of Asian ethnicity (includes Bangladeshi and Pakistani) aged 10-18 years old) in Birmingham. According to Birmingham City Council (2018), a rise in obesity at both Reception and Year 6 was recorded, with a growing gap between Birmingham and the national average whereas obesity prevalence is the highest at 24.4% at Year 6 among other ethnic groups. However, it should be noted that Body Mass Index (BMI) is not always an accurate predictor of fat distribution. Research has indicated for the same level of BMI, people of Asian ethnicity appear to carry more fat whereas people of African ethnicity carry less fat compared to the general population. This may lead to an overestimation of obesity among African and underestimation among Asian ethnicity (Harding et al. 2008).
Social Determinants
For all these reasons, and in view of extremely high economic costs associated with obesity, the root of the problem has to be tackled by addressing the social determinants of health. These are referring to the conditions where people are born, grow, live and various wider set of forces and systems that eventually shape the quality of life outcomes (Daniel, Bornstein and Kane 2018). According to the Department for Work and Pensions (2018), the highest rate of persistent low income was found among people of Asian and Black households.
Poverty and Education
The association between poverty and children’s development has been well documented, beginning as early as the second year of life and extending to elementary and high school (Black, Hess and Berenson-Howard 2000). This includes, poor child development and worst health outcomes as children and adults, as well as lower socio-economic status as adults Duncan, Ziol-Guest and Kalil, 2010, Evans and Kim 2007). Readiness for school sets the trajectory for future success as it requires physical well-being, emotional health and adaptability to new experiences, appropriate social knowledge and cognitive skills (Kagan and Sharon 1992).
School readiness is critical to academic achievement later in life as differences in school entry have long-term consequences. In a study by Lee and Burkman (2002), students who start school significantly behind their peers can never close the readiness gap. Instead, the gap widens as they move through schools (Engle and Black 2018). The increased likelihood of truancy, drop-out rates and unhealthy or delinquent behaviours is the consequences of early school failure. Children from socially disadvantaged communities and families often do not receive the stimulation and the social skills required to prepare them for school. This is mainly due to parental inconsistency with regards to daily routines and parenting, lack of supervision, poor role modelling as well as lack of support from parents (Ferguson, Bovaird and Mueller 2007)
Results from a Canadian study concluded that children from low-income households score lower on measures of vocabulary and communication skills, knowledge of numbers and the ability to concentrate and cooperative play among children of wealthier households (Thomas 2006). Similar trends can be seen in regard to low school readiness associated with socially deprived neighbourhoods whereby target groups go on to complete less schooling, work less and earn less than others (Janus et al. 2007 and Duncan and Magnuson 2013). Thus, the evidence is clear and unanimous that children from low-income families will be at a cognitive and behavioural disadvantage. Although a rate of decline of obesity and its comorbidities is seen in White Europeans in the UK, the same could not be said for minority ethnic group. These inequalities have been attributed to issues regarding health care accessibility and cultural differences, which posed as major barriers medical advice and treatment (Latif 2010)
Living Conditions
Poor living conditions, housing together with homelessness in particular constitutes a health risk especially to child development outcomes. For instance, respiratory conditions due to poor indoor air quality, lead and asbestos ingestion, overcrowding, accidents and injuries due to structural deficiencies (Evans 2006 and Leventhal and Newman 2010). Households in the lowest income groups are two times more likely to live in damp housing or housing that are of poor quality compared to households in the highest income group (Davies 2012).
Housing instability disrupts work, school and social networks between parents and children and over time, concerns over the stability of one’s housing situation and poor control over it result in distress and mental disorders (Hernandez and Suglla 2016). Physical and mental health conditions as a result of poor housing can have associated impacts on a child’s education, especially in children of minority groups (Chambers et al. 2015). This is due to children living in unfit and overcrowded housing often miss school due to illnesses and infections and as a result, experience delayed cognitive development (Rough et al. 2013). Housing indefinitely exert a strong influence towards a child’s development via influences on parental practices, especially young children who spend most of their time indoors, under parental supervision (Moore, Mcdonal and Mchugh-Dillon 2015). At the same time, managing the needs of children with health issues is a difficulty when housing is inappropriate or inadequate (Koenig 2007).
Health and Dietary Needs Assessment
A balanced diet is a fundamental part of childhood nutrition. Health inequalities exist among the target group, as they tend to exhibit poor health outcomes, higher rates of obesity, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, compared to the general population (Leung and Stanner 2011). This is due to the dietary patterns for minority groups have changed drastically owing to migration and the adoption of Westernised convenience food, particularly among children, such as chips, burgers, carbonated drinks and food that are high in fat and sugar, contributing to high overall energy intake (Rawaf and Bahl 1998). Moreover, the nutrient composition of their traditional recipes has high-fat content (Kassam-Khamis 2000). This is further justified by Fieldhouse (1995), whereby cooking oil and meat are more affordable and easily attained after migration. Moreover, the intake of fruits and vegetables is low, whereby the proportion of eating the recommended 5 a day is lower among children from low-income households (All Party Parliamentary Group on Health in All Policies 2016). Dietary calcium is known to decrease gastrointestinal lead absorption which is critical for child development. Children of economically deprived areas are at risk of excessive lead exposure and low intake of dietary calcium. As previously mentioned, due to poor housing as well as the physical environment to which they are inevitably exposed (Bruening et al. 1999).
The Policy - Health Matters: Obesity and the Food Environment
Ultimately the advancement of technology and ease of access to food have shaped an obesogenic environment, subsequently giving rise to health inequalities. The Obesity and the Food Environment is a policy that aims to tackle obesity by focusing specifically on what can be done in order to improve the food environment (Public Health England 2017a).
Takeaways are likely to contribute to health inequalities faced by people living in deprived neighbourhoods, especially children as they are highly price sensitive as their food choices are dependent on its price (House of Commons 2018). Studies have shown fast-food outlets are clustered around the school, enabling children to purchase energy-dense food (Caraher, Lloyd and Madelin 2014 and Ellaway et al. 2012). In a small longitudinal study involving 29 secondary schools in East London has found an increased in the number of takeaways and grocers within 800m of a school, giving rise to the negative effect on the adolescent diet (Smith et al. 2013). This is supported by a prospective study involving 944,487 children in a 6-year follow-up study, indicating the ease of accessibility to hot takeaway outlets is associated with increased odds childhood obesity (Hamano et al. 2017).
Hence, The Strategies for Encouraging Healthier Out of Home Food Provision A toolkit for local councils was introduced. It emphasised the importance of engaging with local authorities (LA) in using licensing powers to influence the provision of healthier food and reduce the proliferation of takeaways (Public Health England 2017b). This signify increased power for LA to respond to obesity challenges in terms of licensing, planning and place shaping fast food takeaways away from schools. PHE have built on this call, stating that interpretation regarding the extent to which existing powers can be used and enforced, and uncertainty surrounding best practice differs among local authorities (LA). Moreover, political and economic challenges may exist, whereby issues concerning public health in planning decisions may be of secondary concern (Public Health England 2017b). This signify that the policy and the council’s planning powers can do little to nothing to address the clustering of fast-food outlets that are already in place. Moreover, planning experts have pointed out that the current planning system tends to focus on how land is used and is not designed to deal with the detail of how a business is operated (The Local Government Association 2018). Moreover, the policy aims to improve the quality of the food environment around schools, as it has the potential to influence children’s food-purchasing habits, ultimately influencing their future diets (School Food Trust 2012). Emphasis has been placed especially taking actions on hot food takeaways. However, the policy fails to address the fact that sweets, sugar-sweetened drinks and other high-calorie food can be purchased in shops nearby school (Public Health England 2014).
Furthermore, studies have indicated that consumers tend to increase energy intake when eating out, usually due to them containing higher calories and fat and less fibre (Lin and Guthrie 2014). The policy encourages the partnership between LA and food operators to provide caloric information through menu labelling. This is to offer consumers a more transparent choice when eating out and with the significant increase in fast food outlets, they posed as a difficulty to resist them. (Tedstone 2018). In a poll conducted by Diabetes U.K (2018), 76% of British adults agree that calorie information should be displayed on their menu so that consumers can make informed and healthier food choices. In a cross-sectional study involving 648 diners, found that with calorie labelling, diners tend to purchase 151 few calories than those dining in restaurants without calorie labelling (Auchincloss et al. 2013). Furthermore, in order to conclude that consumers learn from exposure to energy content information, researchers examined transaction data from 884 card-holders after the implementation of menu labelling, who made food purchases in stores outside the city that were unlabeled. Results were consistent with a learning account, as reductions in energy content of transactions were recorded in unlabeled stores among customers who had previously been to stores with menu labelling (VanEpps et al. 2016).
However, other studies have found minimal, if any, effects of calories labelling whereby meta-analysis conducted before and after calorie labelling showed no association between labelling and meal calorie content in a small sample of children and adolescents (Dumanovsky et al. 2011 and Elbel et al. 2009). Results inconsistency may be due to diverse methods and settings investigated in studies result in high heterogeneity. For example, previous studies have also indicated taste, cost, accessibility and convenience are of higher relevance to consumers than nutritional concerns (Glanz et al. 1998 and Rydell et al. 2009). These factors are not observed in a laboratory setting as food offered are often free. Therefore, the ease of accessibility and convenience could not be evaluated (Cantu-Jungles 2017).
Unlike the U.S where food labelling laws are implemented nationwide, the UK has yet to implement mandatory calorie labelling. Therefore, it relies on the voluntary commitments of food businesses operators. The policy did not address a major gap in the potential benefit of meu labelling, which is the absence of long-term data. Hence, the efficacy of menu labelling at changing behavioural choices especially in communities where obesity prevalence is greatest, could not be explored, further widening the gap of health inequalities (House of Commons 2018). Although most menu labelling provide basic calorie information, however it requires mathematical manipulation, requiring higher levels of nutrition knowledge and literacy (Emrich et al. 2014 and Roberto and Khandpur 2014). The policy did not account for socially deprived individuals and children who lack higher education and may find it hard to conduct a comparison between what is considered ‘healthy’ and ‘less healthy due to this and unlike the ‘Traffic Light’ system that incorporates colours and symbols, to aid consumers to identify items that have ‘low’, ‘medium’ or ‘high’ nutritional quality (White et al. 2016).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the costs of obesity are considerable, especially when further complicated by other illnesses. Hence, tackling obesity requires a multifaceted approach as it is caused by various complex underlying factors. Addressing the social determinants of health is crucial in improving the health of the target population, and to reduce ethnic health inequalities. Halting its invasion and succeeding in maintaining healthy lifestyles in order to revert this situation is the responsibility of all agents involved. Therefore, the partnership between LA and food operators is critical in achieving health goals. The Health Matters: Obesity and the food environment policy managed to address issues surrounding obesity and the obesogenic environment. However, evidence in some areas of the policy is lacking, especially in socially disadvantaged groups. The policy acts as a stepping stone in drawing on existing evidence and focus on the collaboration among different sectors, community and local authorities-led project and filling in the gaps where service provision is lacking.
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Ways to Increase your Dog’s Life Expectancy
As pet owners, we strive constantly to make our companions lives the best that they can be. We want them with us for as long as possible, because we love and cherish them. There are several easy steps we can take, to ensure their longevity and livelihood.
A Healthy Diet
A healthy diet is as important and beneficial to your canine companion as it is to you. This begins with feeding them the food that is formulated for their particular breed, as well as any extra or special dietary needs they may have. Some dogs are prone to eating and eating until they actually make themselves sick. Monitor your companion during meals to make sure this does not happen, and that they are not overeating in general. Keep in mind that obesity can significantly shorten their lifespan, just as it can ours.
Plenty Of Exercise
All creatures need plenty of exercise to live a long, healthy life. Vigorous extended physical activity aids in the burning of calories, as well as the building of muscles and helping to keep your dog in just all around good physical shape. The simple act of walking, a few minutes each day, can go a long way to keeping your dog fit and healthy.
Keep Their Teeth Healthy
Your dog's oral health is just as important as the other aspects of their health. It is important that your companion has at least a yearly dental exam to maintain proper oral care. There are toothbrushes on the market designed with pets in mind, or you could feed them treats that are engineered towards aiding in proper oral care.
Exercise Their Brains
Just like us, our companions need to have their intellect stimulated often. This could include something as simple as talking to them or playing a game of tug-o-war. Use their name during the interactions, with a loving and affectionate tone. Pet and make contact with them often, and in the end, you will receive plenty of butt wiggling in appreciation.
Follow Your Vets Instructions
It is essential that you do everything your vet recommends in regards to taking proper care of your companion. Make sure to schedule yearly check-ups and follow-ups when necessary. Keep all vaccinations up to date, and if you notice any changes in your pet, make sure to let the vet know. Keeping alert to small issues can go a long way to preventing major problems down the road.
Keep Harmful Items Out Of Reach
A pet can be just as curious, and mischevious as a toddler. That is why it is best to “dog” proof your house, just as you would with a human child. Keep any potentially harmful items in a cabinet, with a lock on it. This will assure that your dog will not at any time be able to open the cabinet and have access to the items. Keep all chemicals that you use to clean with out of their reach, and cleaned up. Dogs are naturally inquisitive, and as such, they may quickly ingest something that could make them very sick or even prove to be potentially harmful.
By simply keeping a few simple tips in mind, you can further ensure that your dog will lead a long and healthy life. And that is what is all that is important. We want our companions around a long time, and at that time happy and healthy. Like their owners, it is up to you to do all you can to achieve that goal.
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Anti-aging and Increased Life Expectancy
How a nation responds to social conflicts can either be the hallmark or the failure of that nation. For 75 years the United States has addressed old age, retirement, and the problems associated therewith through Social Security, the largest government program in the world (Brown 1). Social Security, created by Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s administration and like minded congressmen of the time, was a program targeted at solving one of the nation’s most pressing social problems – the poverty of the elderly. Although originally designed to shelter the aged from living their twilight years in destitution, Social Security today potentially holds millions of so called Gen Xers and all post Gen X generations to the prospect of poverty. As currently legislated, Social Security will require these generations to pay trillions of dollars into the Social Security trust fund yet, they will likely never see the returns in benefits during their retirement years. Social Security as it currently exists has created large transaction costs and imposed negative implications for those that bare the burden of providing for the system. Serious reform or abandonment of the system is needed.
Social Security is not as some might think a tax policy to be, even though there are things like, “trust funds, specific benefit packages, federal administration (Graetz 7),” it is social insurance. Social insurance is a means for providing income security for a set of common risks that shift over a person’s life cycle and “that loom larger or smaller depending on the changing backdrop of general, social economic, and demographic developments (Graetz 56).” Social Security was designed to limit those life cycle risks. The program was developed by President Roosevelt as part of his New Deal legislation to provide income security for a group of people who no longer could be cared for in the traditional manners of family support, state pension plans, or the generosity of the occasional philanthropist. Even before the Great Depression, the primary catalyst to Social Security, conditions in America were changing to where the classical methods of elderly support could no longer be used. America had moved from the farm to the city. Families and clergy could no longer adequately support the aged. At the height of the Great Depression nearly 13 million Americans or 24.9 percent of the labor force were unemployed. Among nonfarm workers, unemployment was even worse, as high as 37.6 percent (Ferrara 18). Due to the increase in unemployment most state run pension and welfare systems were on the verge of collapse and the states were begging for federal help. As a result, a pay-as-you-go pyramid system was set up which; 1) Imposed a 1 percent tax on employees’ wages to be matched by a 1 percent tax on employers. The amount of wages subject to the tax was capped at $3,000; 2) Paid old-aged benefits effective January 1, 1942 upon reaching the age of 65 in the form of monthly benefits payable until death; 3) Where individuals who continued to work after age 65 would not be eligible so long as they continued to work; and 4) death benefits (Ferrara 24).
The program now provides retirement benefits, spousal benefits, disability, and survivors benefits. It has become the primary source of retirement income for Americans. Nearly 42 percent of income earned by American retirees over the age of 65 comes from Social Security because at least half of all elderly Americans have no private pensions and over a third have no income from personal assets (Ferrara 34).
This pay-as-you-go system can simply go no further; the formulas for arriving at current benefits can no longer be balanced because the number of workers per recipients has greatly decreased. Originally in 1945 there were 42 workers paying into the system per every one recipient - today there are about three per every one. The problem is inherent in the system itself. The system was based on demographics that no longer exist. Under the original system it was assumed that the population would continue to grow such that there would always be many more workers than there would be retirees. It was also assumed that real incomes would grow at a rate of at least 3 percent per year where the taxable base which benefits were gathered would be greater than the taxes paid by the generation now receiving those benefits (Samuelson 88). Due to the large number of births during the “Baby Boom” years and to the increase in life expectancy those assumptions no longer exist. Americans over the age of 65 have dramatically increased from 7 percent of the population in 1940 to around 12 percent in 2004. It is projected that by 2030 that the number of Americans over the age of 65 will equal more than 20 percent of the total population (Ferrera 38). Also, life expectancy at birth in 1940 was only 64 years (In other words Americans were not going to live long enough to collect social security) - life expectancy today is 78 years. Furthermore, the number of ex-workers has greatly increased as women are now beginning to retire from the work force.
These changes in demographics have created large negative implications for those who pay into the system. The burden placed on the working population has become too great to maintain the current system. Together, with the increase in life expectancy and the number of elderly a new system is needed. There have been several suggested solutions to reform Social Security that do not involve reduction in benefit, tax hikes, or redistributing of the federal budget, however, most politicians consider tackling Social Security as political suicide, so nothing has been truly attempted.
On such solution was proposed by Paul O’Neill, first treasury secretary under George W. Bush and a former chief executive officer of aluminum giant Alcoa, proposed having the government create every American baby at birth an investment savings account. By the time the child retires, the account would contain $1 million or more. To move away from the chronic funding problems of Social Security, O’Neill suggested that the government place $2,000 in a special investment account for every newborn American. The government would then invest $2,000 more each year until the child reaches 18. The money would be invested in a conservative index of stocks and bonds and couldn’t be touched until retirement. The investment would grow at a compounded rate, meaning that as the value of assets in the account grows, profit would be reinvested so the account would grow even more. Without adding a single cent beyond compounding after the child turns 18, he or she would retire at age 65 with $1,013,326 in the account. O’Neill reckons, “If you do the arithmetic, the $1 million would provide an annuity of $82,000 a year for 20 years (O’Neill).”
Whether it’s a private account determined once you enter the workforce or an investment savings account created at birth, these new ideas increase capital formation and they don’t induce early retirement like Social Security currently does. “The provision of Social Security reduces what individuals need to save for their retirement (Stiglitz 341).” As individuals reduce what they save due to their belief in Social Security the national savings rate is lowered. Reduction in savings causes less capital formation that in turn stifles productivity. A benefit of a private account is that it would encourage savings which increases the national savings rates. Either through personal or cooperative investments, productivity increases as well as the national economy; in-turn the money inside one’s private investment grows.
Many experts believe that the transaction costs in switching systems in the United States will be too high to abandon the old system. In the pay-as-you-go system there should be no waste. In affect all that is being done is transferring money from one individual to another. However, there is a hidden cost that must be paid. When Social Security began there was a full generation of individuals who paid nothing or nearly nothing into the system. Even though they paid nothing they received the first series of payments. Ida Mae Fuller, the first recipient of Social Security, paid 44 dollars into Social Security while she received over 20,000 dollars in benefits as she lived to be nearly 100 years old. That said, the trust fund must pay the benefits of all those who have long paid into the system. Therefore before the system is allowed to “privatize” or be dramatically altered the last generation of recipients must be paid.
Although there are many concerns about changing the current system of benefits, the potential for improved efficiency and growth could far surpass that of the current Social Security system. A new system could increase national savings, investment (which produces more jobs), and more economic growth. Martin Feldstein, a professor in Harvard’s Economics Department, estimates the U.S. economy would grow by 5 percent, a gain in $10 to $20 trillion if Social Security was done away with and a new system installed (Feldstein 22). This change would also allow the millions of U.S. workers who currently pay into the system to enjoy even more benefits than past generations did in their twilight years. Simply stated, Social Security no longer applies to today’s demographics. The program either needs to be reformed or eliminated and replaced with a system that meets the needs of today.
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Life Expectancy and Immortality
Since the beginning of time, the life of human beings has been limited here on earth. According to the Biblical and Quran accounts of creation, man failed God and thus the punishment was mortality. Thereafter, human beings have been trying all they can to receive salvation and doing good deeds on earth in the hope of consequently achieving immortality at the end of time. On the other hand, scientists too have been trying to research on the possibilities of achieving immortality and with the advancement of technology there is a glimmer of hope. Currently, the scientists have been able to develop measures to extend one’s life. However, is it appropriate for human beings to seek and achieve immortality with all these researches and technologies at our disposal.
Allison Arieff wrote an article in The New York Times titled “Life is Short. That’s the Point” where she discusses the futility of trying to achieve immortality. She likens the human life to technology that is designed to die after a useful lifespan (Arieff, para. 1). Many technology companies, technologists, and venture capitalists have jumped into the race to achieving immortality and life extension. The author cites Barbara Ehrenreich who wrote a book that implies that life is just but a phase of an eternal personal nonexistence (Arieff, para. 7). According to Ehrenreich, life is just but a blip in the never-ending continuum of the universe. Arieff gives an instance of a two-year period to highlight how so much can happen in a brief time (Arieff, para. 8). The writer also adds that how quickly things can change or disappear that helps her to be in a present because there wouldn’t be no challenges to face if there were no end to our time on earth. Experimenting a lot in that little time span made her feel to be in the real world of human being. The meaning of living the life on earth is losing as well as gaining life lessons at the same time. According to her, it is important to experience and appreciate the brevity of life. She signs of by maintaining that life was meant to have an end and that nothing can change this fact.
Human life expectancy rate has increased since the ninetieth century. Analyzing the global demographic data, shows the improvements in survival with age tend to decline after the age of 100. The question “is it appropriate for human beings to seek and achieve immortality with all these researches and technologies at our disposal?” is an important. It is of great significance to philosophy because life is full of many possibilities and sometimes people die without fulfilling their potential. Maybe if life were a little longer, it would offer everyone a chance to achieve his or her goals, objectives or destiny. Dong et al. (257) posit that the longevity of animal and human lifespan is limited and subjected to some natural constraints. Therefore, it is impossible for humans to overcome these natural constraints to achieve immortality and hence it is useless to try. God has set out the rules and we must follow according to Rachels, and further explains that God will reward those who follow his rules and punish who do not. In addition, Indian philosophy suggests that the pursuit of immortality is a selfish, unnatural and immoral venture (Buben, 8).
Therefore, the pursuit of immortality could bring problems in the balance of universe. I support Arieff’s sentiments that life is supposed to be short. The world currently has about 7 billion people and already that number is straining the earth resources. Unless scientists discover another planet that could support human life, it would be catastrophic for billions of people competing for the meager resources. A peaceful world is one that provides room for new life. According to Socrates, before he died believed that he will not be distracted by death of his body but believed that body was a carrier of the soul. The soul cannot live on its own and hence need a body to survive on earth. He believed for a life well lived, death was ideal and important as soul has a probability of gaining true knowledge of life. The philosophical question presented by this paper is useful in determining the morality of extending life or living forever. It is rare for us to give much thought to challenge that we would face if there were no end to our life on earth. Mortality without a strategy for achieving world peace and sustainable consumption of resources could lead to conflicts that would inevitably destroy the universe. Our humanity is inextricably intertwined with the fact of our mortality. However, this should not stop scientists from seeking immortality as long as they also research ways to improve sustainability.
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Risk of Increasing Life Expectancy
Risk comes in many different forms; one such form is longevity risk. From a personal perspective, longevity risk is the risk of outliving one’s savings. This would lead to these individuals living in poverty, not being able to assist family through inheritance, or both. From a business perspective, longevity risk is the risk of increasing life expectancy, which could lead to future situations in which payout is higher than expected for pension funds or insurance companies. Self-insuring this risk could be of great cost, as mortality is uncertain, and thus is a stochastic process. It is of great importance to measure longevity as accurately as possible. Actuaries working in fields of both pensions and insurance are called upon to analyze the challenges that come with longevity risk and work to predict life expectancy accurately while seeking ways to combat the risk.
The life expectancy of humans is increasing. Healthcare and working conditions have improved tremendously over the years, and the public has a better understanding of how to properly take care of themselves. These factors have caused life expectancy to increase at a rapid pace. This increase in life expectancy is welcome from a progressive standpoint; however, it is of potential concern to retirement systems and other similar businesses.
Businesses that could be adversely affected by longevity risk, such as managers of pensions plans and annuities, as well as life insurance companies, will look to mitigate the risk. This can be done through hedging with longevity derivatives. As the possibility of growing life expectancy increases, the probability of increased costs resulting from the increased life expectancy rises. It is no surprise that this creates additional risk to providers, primarily providers of retirement benefits. Longevity derivatives help hedge against this risk by increasing payouts to holders of longevity derivatives as life expectancy increases. The provider would have additional costs with increased life expectancy; however, this would be offset by the greater payout from the derivative. If the life expectancy is low, there are no additional costs that would accompany high life expectancy, but the derivative would not provide much payout. The two sides move inversely, which leads to the longevity risk being hedged.
In addition to hedgers, mortality-based securities could be of great interest to a general investor, such as an investment bank. Longevity risk has a low correlation with most standard market risk factors, which allows investors to diversify in order to minimize unsystematic risk. This low beta and the potential for a positive alpha make these mortality-based securities attractive for investors. Speculators find these securities attractive for similar reasons.
There are many different types of longevity derivatives of both the symmetric and asymmetric variety. These include longevity bonds, longevity options, longevity swaps, and longevity forward contracts. The first and arguably the most common example is a longevity bond, which is often referred to as a survivor bond. Survivor bonds pay a coupon, but the amount of the coupon is contingent on the proportion of a given population group that is still alive (survivors), as the name suggests. The longer individuals live, the greater the coupon payout. When life expectancy increases, providers are faced with additional costs; however, survivor bonds provide greater coupon payments under these conditions, which allows providers to avoid taking large net losses. The risk of individuals living longer than expected is mitigated because of the survivor bond.
There are also zero-coupon longevity bonds, which offer no coupons, as the name suggests. The principal payment is linked to a survivor index. These bonds are attractive because they can be used to provide a good fit for tailor-made positions, and they can therefore be constructed in such a way that portfolios fit the features that are needed.
Collateralized longevity obligations (CLOs) are tranches of longevity bonds. The various tranches each have a different exposure to longevity risk. The higher tranches come with less risk but also have a smaller expected return. Conversely, lower tranches come with more risk and a larger expected return. CLOs operate like collateralized debt obligations (CDOs) in this way.
Due to the large amount of capital required in the early stages of longevity bonds while the risk is low, an attractive hedging tool is deferred longevity bonds. Payments are deferred to a later date, which frees up capital that would otherwise be spent in the early stages. Deferred longevity options resemble mortality forward contracts in this way. Since deferred longevity bonds allow users to increase the impact of a hedge with a smaller initial expenditure of capital, they are attractive to those desiring to hedge longevity risk.
One of the first longevity derivatives was introduced in December 2003 when Swiss Re offered a three year mortality bond in which the principal payment was tied to an international mortality index. If investors took on the risk of a significant worsening of mortality, they received generous floating rate payments. Investors enjoyed the floating rate payments, and Swiss Re was able to pass off some of its risk. More companies began to implement similar longevity bonds in recent years, and other longevity derivatives came soon after. In December 2005, the CSFB Longevity Index was created, with the purpose of providing a benchmark with which to tie various longevity derivatives.
One of the next longevity derivatives that was created was a longevity option. Longevity options are very useful for hedgers, as they provide non-linear payoffs. With longevity options, hedgers are able to protect their exposure to downward movements while leaving themselves open to upward movements.
An example of a longevity option is a Longevity Experience Option (LEO.) LEOs are call options that were first introduced by Deutsche Bank in 2013. The LEOs from Deutsche Bank were out-of-the-money bull call option spreads with 10 year maturities. A bull call spread is an option trading strategy that is used when the trader believes the underlying asset will have a price increase. An out-of-the-money option is cheaper than an in-the-money option because there is a greater chance that the underlying asset will be unable to reach the strike price. The fact that the LEOs from Deutsche Bank were out-of-the-money call options indicates that the strike price exceeded the current price. This LEO was based off of 10 year forward survival rates.
LEOs give a cheap and liquid alternative to longevity swaps. Longevity options are much simpler to put into practice than longevity swaps. Gains occur if survival rates are greater than the forward rates; however, the gains are limited in order to protect the investors who are providing the hedge.
Speculators can also make use of longevity options. While hedgers trade on views of mortality level, speculators trade on views on volatility. Options are useful for this purpose similarly to how they are useful for hedging; beliefs about the direction of the market can be acted on in an attempt to realize a gain with limited downside risk.
Longevity swaps are another commonly used derivative to hedge against longevity risk. In a longevity swap, the risk that individuals will live longer than expected is transferred to a counterparty, such as an insurance company. In return, an agreed stream of payments will be paid to the company that transferred the risk. This swap is essentially an example of reinsurance; the risk is being transferred to another entity. This is very beneficial as the reinsurance provides insurance against excessive loss. If life expectancy continued to rise beyond predictions, this would limit the loss that could come from additional costs.
As would be expected of a swap, longevity swaps are traded in the over-the-counter market. Longevity swaps are desirable to many due to the fact that they can be made to fit the desires of the individual entering into the swap. This allows for better correlation, which can help prevent excess gains or losses in a hedge and thus leads to low basis risk. Conversely, longevity swaps are undesirable in that they do not have much of a secondary market, and hence investors are not easily able to get out of existing positions; they are illiquid compared to other forms of longevity derivatives. Swaps are useful for helping individuals on two different sides of a situation meet their respective needs. An insurer looking to manage longevity risk could enter into a swap with another insurer looking to acquire longevity risk exposure. As a result of the swap, both parties have what they were looking for and are better off in that sense.
In April 2007 Swiss Re and Friends’ Provident entered into the first publicly announced longevity swap. This swap was based on Friends’ Provident’s £1.7 billion book of annuity contracts. Friends’ Provident kept administrative rights while Swiss Re made payments and took on the longevity risk in return for a premium.
Longevity forward contracts are another type of longevity derivative and are similar in structure to longevity swaps. They are desirable due to great liquidity, which stems from secondary market depth. They are undesirable due to increased basis risk. What is desirable for longevity forward contracts is undesirable for longevity swaps, and what is undesirable for longevity forward contracts is desirable for longevity swaps.
There are several examples of longevity forward contracts including mortality forwards (q-forwards), survivor forwards (s-forwards), and k-forwards. A q-forward (q is the standard actuarial symbol for mortality rate) is a zero-coupon swap in which the two parties involved in the swap can be thought of as a “fixed rate payer” and a “fixed rate receiver.” The fixed rate payer pays a fixed rate based off of the fixed mortality rate and receives a rate based off of the actual realized mortality rate. The opposite is true of the fixed rate receiver. The party that is facing the longevity risk can hedge the risk by entering this swap as a fixed-rate receiver. This would result in its receiving of a fixed payment from the counterparty when mortality is lower than anticipated (life expectancy is higher than anticipated.) The liability of additional costs from lower mortality than predicted could be aided by the payment that is received in situations when costs are higher than anticipated. In many ways q-forwards form the foundation for more complex longevity derivatives.
S-forwards are very similar to q-forwards. The general idea behind the two is the same; however, s-forwards are linked to a survival rate for a given group while a q-forward is linked to mortality rates. The provider pays the estimated population survival rate for a particular cohort, and the provider receives the realized survival rate. The s-forward is only able to hedge the systematic longevity risk; the interest rate risk and unsystematic risk can be handled through diversification and the usage of other derivatives and trades. S-forwards are more complex than q-forwards, as the survival rate that s-forwards are linked to is a function of multiple mortality rates at multiple points in time.
K-forwards are like q-forwards except for the fact that they are linked to a parametric mortality index in a stochastic model. The parametric mortality index is able to give more information about mortality than the nonparametric mortality indexes used in q-forwards and s-forwards. While k-forwards are not as common as q-forwards, the additional information they provide is attractive to some.
Longevity risk is a subject that did not enter the spotlight until the start of the 21st century with the rise in human life expectancy. The growing longevity risk has been combatted with a growing number of longevity derivatives, including longevity bonds, longevity options, longevity swaps, and longevity forward contracts. Actuaries are given the task of modeling the risk in such a way that it can be managed effectively. Longevity derivatives enable those exposed to longevity risk to mitigate the risk to avoid catastrophic losses.
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Binge Drinking – an Important Factor on Life Expectancy
Introduction
In America today, the availability and prevalence of alcohol has promoted a culture where excessive drinking is accepted and often times encouraged. However, excessive alcohol consumption can not only impact the physical wellbeing of the individual, but also drastically decrease their life expectancy as well. According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), the definition of binge drinking is, “a pattern of drinking that brings a person’s blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 grams percent or above.” Binge drinking is directly linked to many chronic health issues such as high blood pressure, stroke, heart disease, liver disease, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, and various forms of cancer. It not only has a link to chronic illnesses, but can have negative impacts on society through increased rates of car crashes, alcohol poisoning, violence and STD contraction (CDC, 2018). Excessive drinking has also led to a great economic burden for the United States. For example, in 2010, alcohol misuse cost the United States $249 billion in lost workplace productivity, criminal justice costs, healthcare expenses, and motor vehicle crash costs (Sacks et al 2015). The Center for Disease Control states that an estimated 88,000 people die from alcohol-related causes annually, which places alcohol as the third leading cause of death in the United States. The prevalence of excessive alcohol use impacts all demographics, from college students to older adults. Nearly 32.6% of Americans have admitted to binge drinking within the past month (NIAAA, 2018). This clearly illustrates the pervasiveness of the alcohol epidemic in the United States and the dire consequences that it can have on the average life expectancy. The serious impacts that excessive drinking can have on the individual as well as the economy shows the need for immediate action by policymakers in the United States
Literature Review
Studies done on the relationship between binge drinking and life expectancy are unambiguous. According to Wood et al. (2018), greater alcohol consumption was associated with higher risk of stroke, coronary disease, heart failure, fatal hypertensive disease, and fatal aortic aneurysm. Subjects were asked to self-report how many grams of alcohol they had consumed per week. It was found that by the age of 40 those who had reported drinking between 100-200 grams, 200-350 grams, and greater than 350 grams saw their life expectancies decrease by 6 months, 1-2 years, and 4-5 years respectively. Another study done by Westman et al. (2014) further suggests a decrease in life expectancy associated with alcohol use disorder. It was found that the people affected by binge drinking saw an average life expectancy of 24-28 years shorter. It was also found that those who were diagnosed with alcohol use disorder had higher mortality rates from all forms of death, diseases and medical conditions, and suicide. This data further supports the claim that as the the amount of alcohol consumed increases, the life expectancy decrease, showing an inverse relationship between the two variables.
Empirical Model
A linear regression model will be used to determine the relationship between binge drinking and life expectancy.
Life expectancy in this model is defined as the number of years a person is expected to live. The independent variable being tracked is the proportion of adults that binge drink. The income variable tracks the median income of individuals by state as well as the percentage of people that are under the federal poverty line. The uninsured variable gives the percentage of the state that doesn’t have medical insurance. Geographic regions are also taken into account, however the northeast has been left out.
Empirical Results
The results show that binge drinking is important when determining life expectancy. With increased rates of binge drinking, a decrease in life expectancy can be expected. A 1% increase in binge drinking results in a life expectancy decrease of .051 years (p-valueTable. 2 Regression Results
However, the data shows that other variables are more important when determining life expectancy in comparison to the prevalence of binge drinking. Higher levels of poverty decreases life expectancy.
Conclusions and Policy Implementation
The results derived from the study have determined binge drinking to be an important factor on life expectancy. The data is consistent with both Wood et al. (2018) and Westman et al. (2014). Both studies had determined that binge drinking leads to a decrease in life expectancy. However, binge drinking is not the foremost cause of a decreased life expectancy. The American government has already tried to implement policies to reduce the prevalence of binge drinking. One was through the prohibition of alcohol, which only served to create a black market for alcohol. Another was raising the minimum age to purchase alcohol from 18 to 21. The best thing to do in this situation is to better educate the population about the long term effects of binge drinking, and the promotion of better drinking habits such as using a designated driver or taxi service. Even the state of Texas liquor laws, which prohibit the sale of liquor past 9PM and Sundays, has proven to be ineffective. Considering the fact that California, a state that has no liquor laws, has the same prevalence of binge drinking as Texas.
One limitation that may skew the results of the study is how binge drinking was defined. Binge drinking in the study was defined as 4 or more drinks for women, and 5 or more drinks for men. However, the study did not take into account the strength of each drink, the volume of each drink, and the size of the individual. All of which are important when determining a person’s blood alcohol content.
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The Ethics of Life Expectancy
The most common and obvious moral problem is already existing in human life expend “unequal death”. The figures speak for themselves: in a number of African countries south of the Sahara, life expectancy is less than 40 years. In rich and developed countries the average lifespan is 70-80 years. This inequality causes because of strictly medical realm. It is mainly the combination of AIDS with poverty that is responsible for this mortality. In sub Saharan Africa, no fewer than 60% off all people live on earth with HIV. Twelve million children have lost at least one parent and in Zimbabwe 20.1% of all adults are infected. This global inequality simply doesn’t present a problem for bioethics. These problems also between are the health of population and international justice. In a globalizing world, problem of ill health in undeveloped nations are related to how the developed and wealthy nations use their political, scientific power and financial. Another possible argument refers to the principle of distribution justice and is formulated along utilitarian lines by Harries, among others. The fact that we have no means to treat all patients is no argument to qualify it unjust to treat some of them: “if immorality or increased life expectancy is a good, it is doubtful ethics to deny palpable goods to some people because we can’t provide them for all”. Our efforts to prolong life, therefore, ought not to be separated from the more fundamental questions relating to integrity: given the problem of unequal death, can we morally afford to invest in research to extend life? Recently Lucke and Hall pleaded for more social research on public opinion about life extension. As a variation on their proposal, people suggest that it is relevant to know the opinions on life extension technology of all those people whose risk of dying before the age of 40 could be diminished by rather simply, low- technology means.
Life is always life with others, even when it is extended. However, seems to be how this relatedness to others is interpreted. A liberal anthropology distinguishes human beings as primarily individual, who relate to each other by contract and negotiations, motivated by self-interest. Moreover, the other person has an instrumental value and can appear as a competitor, enemy or even a friend. Also, the sum of all others, incorporated in the community, fulfils a merely instrumental value: the society is judged by the extent to which it facilitates its members to realize their individual life plan. In a liberal view, the good life is good life for me, defined and measured by myself. Autonomy and authenticity are central values. Arguments in favors of life extension are often based on the presuppositions of liberalism. In communitarian anthropology, human beings are viewed as social beings. Relations with others belong to the essentials of what it is to live a human life. As Aristotle said, a man is by his nature a political being, in the sense of belonging to a community. Human beings cannot live without meaningful relations with others. Goods that are essential for a good life, such as marriage, friendship are essentially goods that are bound to the social dimensions of life. The two anthropological views can be combined with respect to biological aging. In the still hypothetical situation that extending biological age becomes a medical technical option, it is primarily a matter of autonomy whether a subject wants to choose it. This freedom of choice fits with the liberal view. However, the communitarian view, stresses the importance of social network a as condition for a truly human life. Being with others as such is considered intrinsically valuable, not the fact that the other is useful for my purposes. This excludes the option that an extension of biological age is intrinsically valuable. It is valuable only if it also extends our life as communal beings. Living longer is valuable only if it results in living longer in meaningful relations. Quality of time outweighs quantity of time. The real ethical challenge for aging societies, therefore, should be how to improve the conditions for life as a life in community and how to stop aging as such.
The final argument about life extension is the meaning of life. The explicit aim is contrary to the wisdom of ages as contained in various religious and non- religious spiritual traditions. Although all tradition and society agree that life is worthy and should not be taken. There is always a notion that human beings miss the essence of life by focusing on the preservation of their self or ego. Traditions such as these converge in the observation that the more one's self is decentered, the more one loses interest in self preservation or extension of the biological lifespan. Modesty and the ability to give priority to seeking self flourishing by seeking the flourishing of other people seem to be a sign both of happiness and of a meaningful life. Moreover, there is a secular parallel to the experience of the decentering of the self as related to the experience of life's meaning. As we reflect on the relation between time and experience, for instance, there is an interesting and important paradox to be observed: the more life is experienced as meaningful, the less we are aware of time. The activities that give us the most satisfaction and happiness are those in which we are totally absorbed. Performing music, doing sports, reading good books, making love, writing texts are many examples of activities that demand all our attention. In those activities that constitute human happiness there seem to be no time and space, no subject and object. Human beings basically seek is meaningful experiences not to just live more time. These are found by decentering activities, through which the quality of life is expanded and the desire for self preservation and life extension vanishes.
We realize that these three arguments differ in cogency. The argument of justice is the strongest, because it has a common sense argumentative force that is recognized in most ethical theories. The second argument, regarding the social nature of human beings, derives its cogency from the willingness to critically consider and complete the presuppositions of one's moral theory. The third argument, introducing the meaning of life, is the most controversial. It is strongest for those who adhere to one of those traditions but weakest for those who do not. If the three arguments are read in reverse order, we think that they can endorse one another, in the sense that those who search for a meaningful life in the decentering of the self will acknowledge the importance of the community and of global justice. Because we address this article to a wider audience, however, we prefer to begin with the argument of justice.
Is it possible, after what has been said so far, to argue that no individual should have the option for life extension if science progresses enough to offer it? We don't think so. Life is an intrinsic good, and individuals who are ready to accept all ethical objections presented so far are not different from those who choose to live in luxury without feeling the moral obligation of justice. In this paper, however, we focus on the ethical problems of investing in research aimed at further life extension. People have to find their own position and possess the right of free choice. But it is also true that personal answers and choices can be enriched by being embedded in traditions of wisdom with regard to how to live a human live. It is this embedding that we intend to add to the discussion on life extending research. With regard to a better society, in a globalizing world as ours is, there is a moral challenge to expand our view of the common good to encompass good for all, worldwide. This expansion inevitably raises the urgent question of whether we can morally afford, as a question of moral integrity, to invest time and money in trying to extend our lives while sidelining the whole issue of unequal death.
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