Month: March 2021
How Urbanization is Affecting Local Populations of Deer
The population of white tailed deer in Springfield, Missouri has been subject to change over recent years and will continue to change as time goes on. Large portions of the change seen in the deer population can be attributed to urbanization of Springfield and surrounding areas. To better understand what kind of changes urbanization has brought this experiment will compare data from past years of research to data collected during our experiment. The population of Springfield has been growing at a steady rate for the past 30 years with population size increasing by over 27,000 people and will soon be over 200,000 (“Springfield Missouri Population 2018”). With the growth in population there has been a wave of urbanization.
With this large boom in urbanization the question of how this is affecting local populations of deer can be raised and possibly expanded to other species of animals and even plants. The hypotheses being tested in the experiment will be: The urbanization of Springfield has not changed the deer population (i.e. population size, stress levels, food consumption, and reproductive rates) (H?) and The urbanization of Springfield has changed the deer population (i.e. population size, stress levels, food consumption, and reproductive rates) (H?). These factors that will be tested have been identified as key way that urbanization would likely change the population of deer in Springfield, Missouri and surrounding areas.
To determine how these factors have been affected over the years multiple statistical tests will be performed to find whether or not the data has changed. A t-test will be used to determine whether or no the data sets are the same or different and an ANOVA test will show how well the data sets from past and future compare to a mean set of values.
Using data taken from Springfield measurements in 2005 the deer density of the area is 15 deer or less per square kilometer (km²) (Walters). For this experiment the population of deer in the year 2020 will be tested to find the population density for deer in Springfield and its surrounding areas. By testing this the effect that the growing urbanization of springfield and what possible effects it may have on future populations of deer as time goes on will be determined. Urbanization provides different environments for deer, environments that are safer from natural predators and provide stable food sources. However, urbanization also provides a dangerous aspect of life with automobile deaths, in urban areas accidents account for an average of 90 percent of doe mortalities and 63 percent for bucks (Pierce). The collection of this deer density data in 2020 will provide a deeper look in how urbanization has affected the population of deer in Springfield.
Taking into account the type of food deer eat on a regular basis can also reveal what type of effect urbanization has brought upon deer. The normal food consumption for deer consists of forbs, fruits, leaves, grass, and grains. These foods contain high levels of measurable protein, potassium, phosphorus, and calcium that can be tested for in deer feces (Vangilder 711). All of the food can be used to define whether a deer is satisfying its nutritional needs. Each of these is used to satisfy a different type of nutritional need for deer. Taking data from deer fecal samples an average amount of each type of food is found. Recovery of each food type is difficult work, but can be identified a large portion of the time (Zyznar 506). Through the research to be performed in 2020 this experiment will investigate the materials found in deer feces throughout Springfield. This comparison of data from two separate time periods will be able to present whether a deer is eating more or less of one food source than another. If a deer is eating less of one thing this may suggest that its habitat or source of food is being destroyed or taken away due to urbanization, or that the urban environment has provided the deer with a new source of food.
The urbanization of Springfield can also have an effect on the reproduction rates of deer. Studies suggest that the deer reproduction rates decreases and the population density increases, or as the population grows closer to its carrying capacity (Pierce). The rate of reproduction is on average about two fawns per year for 66 percent of the female population of deer in the midwest (Green). The reproductive rates can be affected by the urbanization of Springfield because of the decrease in habitat the deer experience. With a decrease in habitat area there will be an increase in population density and that brings a decrease in reproduction rates.
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How Urbanization Is Affecting Local Populations Of Deer. (2021, Mar 19).
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The Consequences of Urbanization
The consequences of urbanization are diverse having both positive and negative impacts. Using the perspective of sustainable development and its integrated approach, the following chapter provides the brief information on consequences of urbanization on economic, environmental and social development, though the focus will be given to consequences of urbanization on adequate housing, confirming to be as a persistent issue of developing world by the Habitat Conferences.
Economic development
“Cities have become a positive and potent force for addressing sustainable economic growth, development and prosperity, and for driving innovation, consumption and investment in both developed and developing countries.” Indeed, 80 percent of the global GDP is accounted by cities and their contribution to the national income is great. This is even more accentuated in developing countries. According to UN-Habitat, it manifests a strong indicator that the transformative force of urbanization is even greater in developing countries.
For businesses, agglomerations mean proximity to supplier and consumers and therefore a reduction of the transportation and communication costs. It also means a wider range of alternatives and thus a higher chance for good matches between demand and supply, and a higher productivity. Another economic gain from agglomeration is the possibility to share services and infrastructures. In many European cities a revival of a “sharing culture,” partly due to the appearance of new technologies, contributes to sustainable cities. Finally, agglomerations lead to a higher flow of ideas and exchanges, leading to innovations. Formal and informal networks are more likely to be established.
Urban areas are also providing employment opportunities. Most of the private sector job creation is taking place in the city. In African countries, the urban employment in the last decades grew faster than their overall employment. However, as it is mentioned in the ‘Urban Paradox’, urban areas also tend to have high unemployment rate. One of the reasons is that the sectors, especially vulnerable to unemployment, like finance, construction, manufacturing, tourism, services and real estate, are particularly linked to urban areas.
Environment
Unplanned urbanization has a strong negative effect on environment. It can affect the biodiversity and the ecosystems negatively. Missing infrastructures like sewage, water and waste disposal lead to water and soil pollution and spread of diseases.
Air pollution is increasing in rapidly growing and industrializing cities due to high rate of motorization. Half of the world’s population is exposed to air pollution which is 2.5 times higher than the acceptable standard. Though cities occupy just 3 percent of the earth land, they account for 70 percent of carbon emission and up to 80 percent of the energy consumption.
Rapid urbanization increases the number of natural disasters affecting human beings residing in urban areas due to inadequate infrastructures In that regard, the concept of resilient cities was introduced in the formulation of the Sustainable Development Goals. “Resilience refers to a city’s capacity to cope with disasters, including ability to address the structural factors underpinning vulnerabilities and to build more sustainable communities.”
Social development
“Urbanization has helped millions escape poverty through higher levels of productivity, employment opportunities, improved quality of life via better education and health, large-scale public investment, and access to improved infrastructure and services.” This especially apparent in Asia, where urbanization lead to massive economic growth and was accompanied by a decrease in poverty. In China, the poverty rate decreased from 84 percent in 1980 to 10 percent in 2013. But the linkage between urbanization and poverty reduction depends strongly on how urbanization is managed and since the first UN-Habitat conference in 1976, a persistent concentration of poverty in urban areas was noticed.
From economic perspective, indeed cities offer opportunities to improve access to services for health and education, transportation, housing, electricity, water, and sanitation for many people, however poorly planned cities may lead to problems in provision of basic services, like water supply, sewage, social and health services to citizens.
One of the main questions, related to the future of cities, concerns inclusion and exclusion of people. Inequality between rich and poor is extremely apparent in urban areas, stigmatizing some population groups, hindering them to take part in social and economic life and excluding them from opportunities in the society. Some population groups are much more affected by unplanned urbanization than others. In European cities, the older population, who are unemployed, is more likely to be affected by displacement processes and suffering the most from climate change.
Insecurity in urban areas is also gaining an increasing concern, as it was noticed by the Habitat III Conferences. Around 60 to 70 percent of urban citizens had been victims of crime and violence in cities with high urban growth. Urban growth and globalization have worsened the complexity and manifestation of crimes. These includes terrorism, urban warfare and pandemics.
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The Consequences Of Urbanization. (2021, Mar 19).
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Urbanization before 500ce
Urbanization that took place before 500CE had different consequences on human beings and influenced their way of living especially in regard to agriculture. The urbanization resulted to a significant number of people moving to towns especially the Athens where they hoped to get some economic empowerment. The increase in movement resulted to availability of labor that was required for enhancing industrial growth in the society (Mark, 2014). Indeed, through the urbanization, people were able to settle in economic activities such as smith. Therefore, products from metals were developed and this enhanced growth of agriculture sector that relied on such equipment for tilling their lands. Further, through these products the society was able to develop some basic weapons that were necessary to protect them from attack from wild animals (Mark, 2014). Indeed, during this period the conflict between human beings and wild life was a significant and such development improved private protection. Actually, apart from protection, the metal weapons enabled the society to kill some of the animals which they later used as food. Indeed, there was significant increment unavailable food for the society.
Urbanization also helped increase the exposure of people who had gradually lived in their villages where diversity was limited. Through movement to urban areas people interacted with people from other areas and this helped develop a heterogeneous culture in the society (Mark, 2014). The impact was minimization of myths that surrounded some people. The human race was able to appreciate the presence of others and understand that they had a role in building their economy together. Further, through the association, it was easy to learn different things from each other. Some of the people who initially hand no idea about farming were exposed to this information. The resultant was a society that together worked towards a common goal of empowering their generation. Actually, people who moved to the towns helped in bringing peaceful coexistence among different groups of people. A united society was established and this created a platform for development activities that were witnessed during the period.
Further, urbanization opened markets for different products that were produced by people from different parts. Actually, different areas are endowed with varying products and therefore through urbanization such products could be brought together in a common market. Barter trade where individuals exchanged their products with what was required was facilitated during this period (Mendel University, 2012). The impact was established of a mutual society where people supported each other need indirectly through such exchanges. Through the interaction, people were also exposed to new commodities that were unavailable in their areas. Further, the chance for interaction with individuals from different background promoted issues of intermarriages in the society as noted in the Sumerians (Mark, 2014). Therefore, people were able to intermarry and start families with individuals from different races or communities. The impact was a cohesive society and sharing of positive values that promoted the development of the society.
Additionally, urbanization influenced the need for strategic leadership for rhea people. It was identified that people could not progress without having formal leaders among them hot solve different issues. The leaders were based on age and old men in the society played the role of arbitrators in the society. Differences that existed between individuals were taken to the leaders whose deliberations were sought. The leaders were expected to act without buy biased when they determined theca ions against the issues before them by the society (Mark, 2014). Further, the elders acted as the bargainers who unit the society in events when issues that marriages were taking place. They would offer advice to the couples to ensure that they bring out good and responsible families. In events of disagreement in the society the elders would call the people and ask for calmness. Actually, they acted as the pillars of supporting peace in the society. As the old people advanced in age they would select some young people who looked bright and determined in life for training. The training would involve teaching about their cultures bad what is expected of them. Later such individuals would take the leadership from the elderly once they could no longer handle different challenges. However, the choice of the young people was based on recommendation from the society to ensure that biasness was avoided. Therefore, presented individuals were a representation of wishes of the society.
More so, through urbanization informal education was introduced to the people who moved to the towns. The informal learning involved teaching about different things that ranged from culture, responsibilities and challenges in life. It was expected that values of the society would be passed to different generation through such learning. The activity took place during the afternoon when people had finished their chores to ensure that economic activities were not threatened. The elders who mostly carried the teachings understood that people could not use learning as an excuse to avoid taking their daily responsibilities. The teaching also empowered the society to look positively on other people who shared different believes with them (Mark, 2014). The effort was directed towards establishing a cohesive society. Further, learning introduced people to different mechanism they would use to face common enemy. It was emphasized that without uniting as a group the success of the community was threatened. An activity such as use of weapons like arrows was also demonstrated during these sessions. The impact was a society that was all round and would handle unforeseen eventualities and protect them from harm associated with wild animals. The learners were expected to pass what they leant to the next generations. This ensured that such values were preserved.
However, despite the positives that was established through urbanization, there are different limitations associated with the process. Urbanization is associated with increased issues of slavery in the society (Mendel University, 2012). Indeed, people in the urban areas thought that one way to maximize their productivity was to reduce their operational costs. Use of slaves would ensure that the cost of production and related expenses was kept at minimum. Therefore, the poor in the society were exposed to slave labor where they worked without pay. The situation as witnessed with the Romanians was inhuman and denied the individuals a right to live a decent life. Further, the slaves were exposed to harsh environment where they would work for relatively long hours(Mark, 2014).. Battling was also common especially if a slave was identified to work at a slower pace. The harsh environment deteriorated health of some of the people who would eventually die. The practice further separated families where men who were known to be breadwinners were carried as slaves. The resultant is suffering for the wives and children back in the village. Further, slavery impacted negatively on ability of some of the society to procreate resulting to progressive declining of such people.
In addition, urbanization is related to pressure on available resources in the available towns during the time. The sudden movement of significant numbers to towns without expansion of available amenities put pressure on available amenities (Mark, 2014). Therefore, issues such as accessing of products such as clean water were a problem. The impact was a society that survived merely on limited resources. Issues of diseases were also common due to the reduced hygiene as a result of inadequate water and social amenities (Mendel University, 2012). Further, the high population in the towns put pressure on the available medicine men that were available to treat the sick in the society. Therefore, a significant number of people would die due to limited access to traditional medication. The congestion was also related to increased criminal activities in some of the urban centers as people struggled to survive. Some individuals resulted to issues such stealing to support their demands in the town. The impact was insecurity in the urban areas and posed people to constant hurt as some thieves tried o steal from them. The impact was a society that survived on fear and this limited the productivity of a section of the society.
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Urbanization Before 500ce. (2021, Mar 19).
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Effects of Urbanization on the Deer Population
Urbanization has great effects on the ecosystems especially the deer population and species surrounding it. The urbanization of Springfield has included the insertion of roads, buildings, and an increase in human population. This urbanization has affected the the ecosystem as a whole and all the species living in it. One species that has seen experienced a big impact from urbanization is Deer. An increase of deer population has been seen throughout the last 10 years and has been directly correlated to the increase in human population and urbanization of Missouri. In an article published the university of missouri it explained how urbanization provides a deer with everything it could ever want because humans and their homes give deer the perfect environment to live in. They are somewhat protected by the urbanization. They have no real predator because their predators do not come around people and their homes. In a more urbanized area deer have a food supply readily available because of the plants, shrubs and trees grown and put around the buildings in their environment. Before urbanization deer would be put in the open with no buildings so predators like coyotes and bobcats can easily spot deer and attack them (Mizzou).
This increase in deer population can negatively affect the ecosystem. One main way is because they will eat all the of vegetation around them which will not only affect them but the species that live in and around that vegetation like birds. This causes an overall negative effect of the ecosystem because it does not have enough resources to supply the large population of deer. This then decreases the overall biodiversity of the ecosystem which is a negative effect on all the species. As the deer population reaches its carrying capacity then their food and shelter resources will start to diminish. Once the carrying capacity is reached, a downward slope of population will be seen because there's not enough resources to provide for the large population of deer.
As population of deer go up then the mortality rate of deer is also to increase because of disease, hunting limits and automobile accidents.
Density dependent factors- competition among deer and diseases and parasites. As the population of deer increases in a specific area then the amount of resources will become limited
One major density independent factor that can affect the deer population is weather. In Springfield snow and freezing temperatures are the 2 factors impact deer. A deep snow can make it difficult for deer to find food and it can affect their bodies in a negative way which can lead to an increased mortality rates.
This is important because we need to understand and make better management decisions when talking about the deer population.
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Effects Of Urbanization On The Deer Population. (2021, Mar 18).
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The Urbanization
Urbanization assign to the population manage from rural to urban residence, the slow extend in the rate of folks lives in town areas, and the ways in which each partnership accommodate to this vary. It is primarily the outgrowth by which towns and cities are formed and get larger as more kindred commence vigorous and operation in focal areas. Although the two concepts are sometimes manner interchangeably, urbanization should be extraordinary from polite consequence: urbanization is 'the apportion of the sum general population live in areas seminar as cultivated', while urban growth assigns to 'the certain multitude of people living in urban areas.”
The urban environment is a significant factor in determining the standard of a human’s life in urban areas. For example, environmental difficulties include inadequate water and sanitation, lack of rubbish disposal, and industrial pollution. (Boyle) Sadly, to solve the lack of human resources and improve the environment is very costly. Urbanization effects the sustainability of urban development by their consumption of food, water, energy, and land. To add on if an environment is not healthy, no one will want to live in that urban area. In fact, they would move to a rural environment to stay physically and mentally sound. “Until a century ago, urban areas were some of the unhealthiest places for people to live.” (Boyle)
In developing countries, urbanization usually occurs when folks move from villages to compose in cities in fear of gaining a better banner of lives. The movement of nation from one ground to another is warn transmigration. Migration is influenced by domestic effect and educement and by technological veer (Marshall) and perhaps also by contest and friendly disruption. It is driven by pluck constituent that influence populate to townish areas and perplex element that excavation lede away from the countryside.
Employment opportunities in cities are one of the strength contest agent. Many industries are in cities and propound opportunities of noble townish payment. There are also more instructive institutions condition way and training in a liberal rank of liable and property. People are attracted to an urban lifestyle and the ‘illustrious lights’ of metropolis world. All of these factors ensue in both momentary and pucka migration to townish areas. The growth in urban areas comes from both the increase in migration to the cities and the fertility of urban populations. Much of urban migration is driven by rural populations’ desire for the advantages that urban areas offer. Urban advantages include greater opportunities to receive education, health care, and services such as entertainment. The urban poor have less opportunity for education than the urban nonpoor, but still they have more chance than rural populations.
Urbanization is salient to a frequent of drill, contain townish diagram, geography, sociology, chrematistics, and general sanity. The oddity has been privately associated to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological protuberance of consolidation. Urbanization can be accomplished as a discriminating state at a adapt age or as an enhance in that requisite over delay. So urbanization can be quantitate either in limit of, smack, the impartial of urbane growth respecting to the everywhere population, or as the proportion at which the townish lot of the population is growing. Urbanization produce abnormal convival, sparing and environmental veer, which contribute an importunity for sustainability with the “powerful to usage means more effectively, to created more endurable alight habit and to screen the biodiversity of regular ecosystems.”
Urbanization appear either organically or diagram as a rise of distinctive, inferring and rank operation. Living in an urban area can be culturally and economically beneficial since it can contribute more opportunities for people to be successful.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Urbanization
The term urbanization is discussed more than ever because of the recent impacts on the people and the environment. Urbanization is when there is an increase in population in cities and towns versus rural areas. It is either the level of urban development relative to the population or it can represent the rate at which the population grows. Cities today are growing at a fast rate and slowly replacing rural areas with urban areas. It was expressed that the United Nations stated that 50 percent of world's population lives in urban areas (Haub, 2009, p. 1). This will continue to increase because economies will continue to grow and the chance of earning a higher income is increased within the cities. Employment opportunities, modernization, and commercialization are examples of why urban areas have been increasing over the years. As urban areas become more technologically based, people believe they can live a happy life in cities.
There are also negatives that come with the benefits of urbanization. The negatives of urbanization are the housing problems and overcrowding. The population increase in cities can create a scarcity of houses and lead to overcrowding of people within a small area. The decreased living conditions could lead to potential health problems in the future. Overall, the benefits of urbanization outweigh the drawbacks because of the employment opportunities and the improving economic status within the cities.
The main cause of urbanization is the employment opportunities that come with urban areas. There is a variety of job opportunities that draw people in from rural areas. It gives the people a chance to have employment in several job categories that improve economic development. “The majority of people frequently migrate into urban areas to access well paying jobs as urban areas have countless employment opportunities in all developmental sectors such as public health, education, transport, industries, and business enterprises” (Rinkesh, 2016, p. 7). Companies and industries generate and increase jobs by creating tourism promotion and increasing advertisements to draw people into cities for the job opportunities. More people everyday here about the employment opportunities in urban areas because of the technological advances that makes it easier to promote businesses through social media and online advertisements.
The second benefit to urbanization is the increased modernization in technology and infrastructure. “As urban areas become more technology savvy together with highly sophisticated communication, infrastructure, medical facilities, and other social amenities availability, people believe they can lead a happy life in cities” (Rinkesh, 2016, p. 8).
Modernizing cities start with the construction engineers. They control the construction of buildings and roads in the cities. It was stated that “The stability and livability of the world's growing urban regions is going to depend more than ever on advances in public-infrastructure engineering” (Arizona State, 2009) (p.1).
It starts with the construction engineers to maintain urbanization with the designing of strong and environmentally safe buildings and roads. The world's fastest growing urban regions will demand a much more modern infrastructure setting in the future. The future is the construction of “smart buildings” that will reduce energy consumption. Buildings that transfers air to regulate temperature, reuses water and potentially generate their own power. The design of modern houses will be a vital solution to population growth in cities. “Solar One’s new headquarters in New York will be a net zero energy consumer and will feature green tech like PV panels, and a garden wall for shade” (Goodier, 2013, p 3). Another issue in big cities is the traffic congestion. Modern transportation systems will monitor themselves to prevent traffic accidents and will show drivers how to avoid congestion in cities. As cities grow, governments will work on large projects, from public transit systems to highways. This increased infrastructure will make the cities more mobile, so that businesses can place themselves by the newly established transportation areas to gain access to a potential increased customer base, as more people can travel to their business.
The last advantage of urbanization is commercialization. Commercialization is the process of distributing goods or services to the general population or to other businesses. It is the production, distribution, or sales to achieve success of the good or service. “Commercialization and trade comes with the general perception that the towns and cities offer better commercial opportunities and returns compared to the rural areas” (Rinkesh, 2016, p. 5). Commerce overall increases the productivity of a city. It satisfies the human wants and increases the standard of living. Today, people can buy anything in cities and can satisfy their needs and wants. Commercialization helps us receive goods and services at the right price and place and overall improves the standard of living. Commerce connects producers and consumers through wholesale or retail. The producer can be informed about a producers wants and needs through marketing research. Commercialization helps link everyone together through the production of goods and services.
Though there are many benefits of urbanization, there are also many disadvantages which will need to be covered to finalize the argument of urbanization. Despite the positive impacts, the development of slums, overcrowding, and water and sanitation problems are increased in populated areas. The cost of living in urban areas can be expensive in certain areas. “When this is combined with random and unexpected growth as well as unemployment, there is the spread of unlawful resident settlements represented by slums and squatters” (Rinkesh, 2016, p. 15). This can happen because of the people that want to search for better life and are unable to pay for the elevated prices of living. The second problem of urbanization is the potential overcrowding of people. People rapidly moving into cities can create a congestion of people within a small area. This congestion can lead to increased issues between the people or the infrastructure. The final problem is the water and sanitation problems.
Cities can be faced with serious resource problems because of the rapid population increase. “In 2050, we forecast that 993 million people will live in cities with perennial water shortage within their urban extent” (Mcdonald, 2010, p. 7). The water problems within the cities can also threaten the wildlife. The demand of water in urban areas can potentially threaten many more freshwater species.
Nevertheless, these disadvantages could easily be fixed with experienced personal, and a willing to change habits. It starts with everyone that lives in the cities to work together to stop the development of slums, water, and sanitation problems before they happen. There are two solutions a city can look at when there is a water shortage. First, cities can increase the mining of groundwater. This will put off a water shortage by a few years or decades. Second, water shortages can be decreased by improving landscape management. Changes in land use or management can free up water for urban cities. Cities can pay farmers for the water that they usually put on their field to free up water for the urban areas.
The development of slums can be handled by the civil engineers. It starts with the civil engineers to maintain urbanization with the designing of strong and environmentally safe buildings and roads. Engineers will work with communication and public utility systems to develop technological advances necessary to connect these systems and together to run a productive city properly. Overpopulation can be controlled by the city management. It is important that there is control over the population to limit the risk of overpopulation.
The term urbanization is discussed more than ever because of the recent impacts on the people and the environment. Urbanization is when there is an increase in population in cities and towns versus rural areas. Urbanization will continue as long as we are on this planet. Nothing will stop the number of cities developing in the future. The increasing is fueled by the Industrialization, employment opportunities, and modernization within the cities. The advantages can heavily outweigh the problems if everyone starts to take care of this planet. The problems can be settled before they happen if people don't abuse what they have and take care of everything in a positive manner. Overall, the benefits of urbanization outweigh the drawbacks because of the employment opportunities and the improving economic status within the cities.
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The Urbanization and Migration in China
Urbanization in China
Urbanization is an inevitable trend worldwide. It’s not simply the process of changing the countryside to cities but also a process of economic structure upgrading and resource reconfiguration. Before the “Chinese Economic Reform”, which started in 1978, China is a typical agricultural country. Non-urban areas, basically farmlands, occupied over 80% of the Chinese region, with around 90% of the whole population are farmers (data from the Statistical Year Book of China). However, due to the primitive farming technology at that time, the efficiency of the agricultural economy is too low to be the main productive force for supporting a big country like China. In addition to the unwise suing of the land resources in China, the labor force has not been developed at all. Farmlands were equally assigned to every family but those lands were not so big that need every family members to work on, just like what the article “The Landless Landlords” described, “Rather than working together with an entire production team on communal land, each family received one mu (approximately one-sixth of an acre) per person to farm and one plot per household on which to build a homestead.” Crops need time to grow, and their harvest largely depends on the weather. And even though, farmers are lucky enough to have a great harvest every year, their standard of living never exceed “can eat enough”. Those farmers, who made up the largest group of Chinese society, have time and desire to work for a better life but there was no job for them except cultivation.
In 1978, the Economic Reform officially promoted by Deng Xiaoping. The original land distribution system was abolished in this reform, and local entrepreneurs were allowed to use those lands to develop businesses instead. With China opening its market to the outside world, a large number of foreign companies entered and built factories. The problem of people like farmers unemployed was resolved. As most farmers began their career in those factories and became blue-collar workers, China transformed successfully from an agricultural country to a manufacturing country. During that period, the most common dressing in China was the blue overalls which stand for the skilled worker. Most of those workers were farmers before, and they were quite proud of themselves for being blue collar workers.
Great achievements have been made by the Chinese Economic Reform. China’s GDP was growing exponentially. As more and more farmlands became factories and tall buildings, a special group of people appeared in this process – landlords. In the reading “The Landless Landlords”, Wang Tao family is a typical representative of this type of person. Wang Tao was a villager in Gan Jia Zhai. When he and Liping got married in 1981, Wang Tao was still a diligent farmer who worked in the farmland straight from early morning to sunset. These days were hard, the whole family’ s assets merely enough to sustain a livelihood. Fortunately, this kind of days didn’t last long. After the government bought a portion of the farmlands held by Wang Tao for the construction of High – Tech Zone, the whole family became “rich” all of sudden. “At a time when wealth wasn’t measured in millions but in ten thousand, it was rather like winning the lottery.” (The Landless Landlord) However, although the urbanization process in China improved farmers’ lives temporarily, it also put those farmers in liminality. What can farmers do without lands? Perhaps youth would choose to be a blue-collar worker for sustainable income in the future but Wang Tao apparently didn’t have this desire. Since he got enough money, and the family could have enough income by renting their extra houses to the workers in the High-Tech Zone, he chose to gamble instead of working. Clearly, Wang Tao’s social status was vague during that time, which means he was in liminal. In liminality, the sense of belonging is very needed, and that’s why Wang Tao addicted to mahjong. In other words, he was not attracted by mahjong, the game itself, but by the communitas which he could gain through playing this game, from the mahjong parlor, or more specifically from other gamblers. This liminal situation basically “ruined” Wang Tao on a personal level. He used to be very hardworking and responsible for the family but he could play mahjong for nearly a week without returning home. This feeling of emptiness also happened on Liping who was in liminality as well. Compare to Wang Tao, the things Liping did for filling the emptiness is much different and “healthier”, “though she typically has nowhere to go and nothing more to do than repeatedly mop the floor, she is always impeccably dressed; it helps her feel good, especially when she remembers the day s when she worked so hard but still wore nothing but homely clothes”. (The Landless Landlord)
There were many landlords like Wang Tao family who could have enough income by just renting their extra houses. Urbanization led to this kind of liminal situation for them. However, this kind of situation is inevitable but also unsustainable. With the continuous extending of urban, the source of income of those landlords would eventually be cut off, and they have to work for survival. In other words, those landlords would leave the liminality at last. Urbanization is inevitable for China’s economic rise. Through urbanization, China’s economic structure upgraded (from agriculture to industry and manufacturing) and resource reconfigured (fully use the rural labor forces) successfully.
Migration in China
“Human migration is the movement by people from one place to another with the intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily in a new location.” (Wikipedia). China’s population migration is the main consequence of large-scale urbanization. According to the data of the Statistical Year Book of China, the urbanization rate has increased by 13.42% within ten years, from 2006. At the same time, the urban population has grown from 459 million in the year 2000 to 577 million in the year 2006, which is about 20 million new people annually. Even though the urban population increased so fast, not everyone can be “citizen”. Due to household registration China conducts, it’s not easy for rural residents to get city household registrations and be citizens officially. Especially for the megacities like Beijing, Shanghai, and Shenzhen, the transformation would be even harder. Therefore, for most of China’s rural poor like Qin’s parents, who had no choice but left home to find work in Guangzhou in order to improve family’s life, have to go back home all the way through half of China for seeing their children who live with the grandma in a village. When this kind of individual migrations come up simultaneously, a unique migration phenomenon, “Chunyun”, happens.
Migration itself is a liminoid situation. During the process of migration, people’ s social status is vague temporarily. Chaos and disorders usually take place in such liminoid situation like “Chunyun”. “Chunyun”, also called the “Spring Festival Travel Rush”, is a phenomenon of large-scale human migration, which caused high traffic pressures, that occurred in China before and after the Lunar New Year.
In that period, the whole population flow could involve several billion people, both railways and airplanes are overloaded, and lots of people could barely get a ticket. Even the highways are full of cars, sometimes it may take hours for moving 1 kilometer. The real scene that is showed in “Last Train Home” is unforgettable, crowded and disordered throngs could create variety of dangers. Nonetheless, many people who work in other cities, like Qin and her parents, still choose to join this “fight”. In China, the Spring Festival is the most important festival of the year. Usually, no matter how far away from the family, Chinese people should try to reunite with his family on New Year's Eve for greeting the New Year together. Therefore, in some extends, the existence of “Chunyun” could be attributed to the traditional mind that root in Chinese people. Despite this, urbanization is the main reason for the huge travel rush. The rapid growth and development of cities have led to an uneven distribution of resources in China, which means rural people have to work in cities, otherwise, their low-standard life could never be improved. Xiao Shi in the reading “Nowhere Nanny” is a typical instance. By being a whole –time in her owner Cui’ s family, who lives in the city, Xiao Shi’s live became better since it was unmatchable between the income in the city than in the village. That’s why she would rather leave her own children to work in the city. In other words, if there is no difference in job opportunities and living conditions between urban and countryside, “Chunyun” wouldn’t exist as no one like to work far from family.
Although the urbanization does help Chinese economic growth, some migration issues like “Chunyun” come with it. However, from other aspects, we have to admit that urbanization is an inevitable trend for Chinese development. And currently, since China’s urbanization still on process, I rather believe the issues like “Chunyun” are just a matter of time and will be solved in the future.
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Urbanization on Well-being
In modern industrialized societies, emerging adults have a surplus of freedom. To define oneself and live from that stance will likely result in the outcomes of their life. According to Sharon (2016), managing one’s well-being and growth is just as important as their identity. Urbanization is projected to constitute up to 66% of America by 2050 and likewise in India, 41% by 2020 (Srivastava, 2009). A sudden increase in cities and urban population provides advantages and disadvantages to the surrounding populous including but not limited to social economic and psychological changes as well. Considering young adults have such unprecedented freedom, the effects urbanization has on the well-being of emotional, psychosocial well-being and life satisfaction factors in emerging adults must be quite significant.
Well-being is a broad term which constitutes a variety of definitions from professional researchers. There is a general agreement that “at minimum well-being includes the presence of positive emotions and moods (contentment and happiness), absences of negative emotions (depression, anxiety, etc.), satisfaction with life, fulfillment and positive functioning” (CDC, 2016). Simply put, well-being can be defined as judging life positively and feeling good. According to the Center for Disease Control, there is a U-shaped distribution of well-being by age. That is younger and older adults tend to have more well-being compared to middle-aged adults (CDC, 2016), but this context seems subjective. There is little to much research provided on young adults in urban settings and findings as such could possibly reveal a better-defined statistics.
Emotional well-being is an essential part of health and is defined as “being confident and positive and able to cope with the ups and downs of life” (Stewart-Brown, 1998). The Center for Disease Control (2016) also identifies positive emotions are among the central components of well-being and are “independent dimensions of mental health that can and should be fostered”. Regarding urbanization, strangled traffic, neighborhood deterioration, juvenile crimes, and overcrowded schools cause a downward spiral of circumstance thus resulting in negatively impacting emotional well-being. This has also been labeled as the “crisis of the metropolis” (Dumpson, 1962). As for India, urbanization rates have slowed but urban slums have expanded (Nijiman, 2015). Slums are the unfortunate by-products of overpopulation and poverty and interestingly enough show for higher levels of well-being among their U.S. equivalents (Nijiman, 2015).
Psychological well-being consists of positive relationships with others, personal mastery, autonomy, a feeling of purpose and meaning in life and personal growth and development. Such may be attained by achieving a state of balance affected by both challenging and rewarding life events (Wikipedia contributors, 2018). Urban areas struggle with adequate infrastructure because there are fewer facilities available. These results link to increased stressors and factors like high violence, pollution and reduced social support (Srivastava, 2016). Those faced with poverty are prone to mental illness which directly correlates to the findings of Sharon (2016). Sharon (2016) indicates the idea of traditional transitional adult roles directly correlating with the feeling of a lack of control in life (Srivastava, 2016). Considering young adulthood is the most productive age and young adults have the desire to be in their next stage of life, mental illness prevails as anxiety and depression can overwhelm.
Life satisfaction is defined as the way in which people show their emotions, feelings and how they feel about their directions and options for the future. Likewise, this is another “measure of well-being viewed in terms of relationship satisfaction, self-concepts, achieved goals, and self-perceived ability to cope with one’s daily life” (Wikipedia contributors, 2018). “Life satisfaction is generally more dependent on the availability of basic needs being met (shelter, food, income) and access to modern conveniences” (CDC, 2016). A study in the youth of Flint, Michigan (1982) shows a lack of life satisfaction within environments. Low neighborhood security of urban communities also reflects dissatisfaction with livelihood (Widgery, 1982).
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Urbanization Dilemma in Ethiopia
Ethiopia, one of the developing countries in the world, is encountering a new, modern era. It has experienced the fastest growing economy in Africa and these enhancements have been the most significant in the Ethiopian History. However, environmental problems are rapidly worsening by the lack of sense among the population and industries. Urbanization in a developing country is still a dilemma, whether to first focus on the economic growth or to first build a foundation for the future is the question. While Ethiopia has followed the first choice, to focus on the economic growth first, researchers have shown transportation and pollution, the ineffective source of energy and water quality has been the most serious cause of environmental problems and public health as urbanization increases.
According to resources, the main sources of this environmental pollution are metal and cement industries, fossils, fuel combustion, road dust and traffic emission. This has caused asthma for almost 90% of the children. There is no regulation that protects people from the industrialized areas in developing countries and life expectancy in such places are low because of this problem. It is also a major aspect in weakening economic growth and a significant struggle of the poverty-stricken people. Addis Ababa, which is the capital city of Ethiopia, is known to be one of the poorest cities in the world because of its state of public transportation. In Addis Ababa, there is a rapid increase in air pollution because of the growing numbers of automobiles.
These vehicles don’t really meet the standards of emission set by environmental agencies which worsen the problem of pollution. According to the IUP journal of Environmental Science, it was found from the study of automobiles that 53.5% of them were more than 20 years old and that 29.3% were more than 30 years old. This is an issue because the emission from the exhaust system gets higher as the older the car gets. The major pollutants emitted into the air because of these old vehicles are nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide et cetera. These are hazardous chemicals that affect people’s health and cause them to get infected or get diagnosed with diseases. Studies have also shown that most patients that visit the medical center have been exposed to a respiratory infection that can be attributed to the emissions of vehicle transportation in Addis Ababa.
In addition to having pollution problems, Ethiopia has also a low rate of obtaining energy sources and is one of the reasons why it’s still categorized as a developing country. The energy supply is fundamentally based on the country’s biomass due to restricted access to modern energy sources. Ethiopia’s energy supply consists of approximately 92.4% biomass followed by 5.7% oil and 1.6% hydropower. It is provided with renewable energy and these energies include geothermal, wind, and solar. However, a small amount of these energies are controlled by the government. Ethiopia, one of the fastest growing countries in Africa, is demanding for more waste and a big stipulation for electricity as the rate of urbanization increases nowadays. There is a big difference in how electricity is distributed in the urban and rural area of the country. Only 23% of the population was connected to the National Grid in 2012 and even though 83% of the population live in the rural area, they only get 5% access to electricity.
People living in the urban area have to highly depend on biomass using firewood, dung, and crop residue for cooking and heating. This becomes another issue because these things they use in the rural area emits CO2 causing air pollution.
One of Ethiopia’s problem is that they don’t use the resources that they already have efficiently because they’re not sure of how to control it. The Ethiopian revolutionary democratic front (EPRDF) has been coming up with solutions on how to spread electricity to all Ethiopian residents, but there has been a lot of inconsistency between the resources the country already has and the unfulfilled demand at the homes of the people. The difference between Ethiopia’s resource and electricity distribution springs partially from the high-class leaders only focusing on the country’s transformation and not so much on the people. According to Zemedeneh Negatu, a managing partner at Ernst and Young Ethiopia, the country’s industrial based strategy only will require more electric input for the industries restraining the residents living both in urban and rural areas from having access to electricity. This only reinforces the idea that the EPRDF is prioritizing the development of industries instead of the living conditions of the people which leads to being centrifugal for the citizens to leave Ethiopia.
Another factor that affects the environment of Ethiopia is its unsanitized water crisis. The country has been experiencing poor sanitization, water shortage, and insufficiency of clean water for a couple of years now. Ethiopia’s location and politics determine the lack of water. Similarly to the distribution of electricity in the rural areas and urban areas, clean water is allotted to only 42% of the population in the city but the percentage goes even lower in the rural areas causing significant health problems. Even though some percentage of people get access to clean water, 72% of the population doesn’t get a sanitized water. People living in the rural parts of Ethiopia get access to water from shallow water resources that are often polluted by both human and animal waste, worms, and diseases. Not only humans are affected by this, animals also die after drinking contaminated water. Ethiopia has been hit by drought several times and during this time, diseases spread a lot faster within a community because many are unable to take a shower that results in sickness. Children are the ones that are more exposed to diseases and end up dying especially under the age of 5 years old, this is also the reason why the infant mortality rate in Ethiopia is high. Young girls are also unable to keep up with their education outside of the city because they have to collect water from the shallow water resource or from a river nearby to provide for their families. Water shortage doesn't only affect people’s health but their way of life as well. Politics is also involved in the scarcity of water. Through the colonial time, the Nile river and its headwater were broken up between the countries surrounding it and this became a problem for Ethiopia’s agriculture because farmers are now fighting for access to water for irrigation. The fields the farmers work at are becoming dry and the rainy season has been becoming shorter due to change of global warming.
Regarding all the issues that are pointed out above, for transportation it can be recommended that the government of Ethiopia should take a strong action in measuring the age of all vehicles. They should impose financial penalty on those vehicles, which are more than 10 years old. Apart from that, the government should take an initiative to keep a check on the vehicles after every 3 months. The department for pollution control should closely supervise all the vehicles on road and take necessary actions. For the energy and electricity problem, It can be recommended that the government of Ethiopia should introduce cooking stove for the rural population at a reasonable and affordable price. Moreover, strict laws should be made to conserve electricity. Electric hooking needs to be banned from the country in order to provide electricity to the entire country. By imposing strict laws, the country will be able to conserve energy which will lead to electricity saving. As for Ethiopia's water crisis, it can be suggested that the government makes it its objective to provide people in the urban and rural areas safe and sanitized water. They can do that by investing in more resources that are similar to water problems. Also work more with advertising WASH (Water, Sanitation and hygiene) products in areas where citizens have inconsistent access to water and lack of sanitized water to help them find services and products for a better suitable living.
In conclusion, even though Ethiopia is known to be one of the fastest developing countries in Africa, there are some environmental problems that needs to be addressed and should find a solution for the residents both in urban and rural areas. Pollution and shortage of sanitized water are the two environmental problems that highly is affecting people's health. The government should find a way to minimize air pollution and find a way to provide safe clean water. Ineffective sources of energy and uneven distribution of electricity is another issue the government should focus on because these are the reasons why Ethiopia is still considered a developing country.
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Benefits of Urbanization
Urbanization is a “spatial transformation” where people from rural areas move to urban areas (Luc & Todo, 2014). Looking down on urbanization is a popular view with regards to the environment. However, this shouldn’t be the case, in fact there are many ways that urbanization positively impacts the environment.
Urbanization creates high density, which allows for transportation (public and private) to be more environmentally friendly (Wan, 2013). Environmentally friendly methods of transportation such as bikes, walking and public transportation (public busses, metro, ect.) tend to improve air quality in urban areas. This is very important for public health because cars produce NOx, an atmospheric pollutant which can damage lung tissue and cause respiratory problems. It also damages plant tissue and plays a role in creating acid rain. It’s especially dangerous for those who live by the congested parts of roads such as highways because they are exposed to a higher amount of NOx, thus putting their health in more jeopardy. 29% of greenhouse gas emissions can be traced back to transportation and having public transportation can reduce these emissions (measured in emissions per passenger mile), the largest decrease in green house gas emissions is using metros and subways with a decrease of about 76%, then light rail systems at 62% and public busses at 33% less (FTA, 2015). The decrease in greenhouse gasses (GHG) means that the “blanket” of GHG surrounding the earth isn’t as heavy, helping to slow down global warming. Not only does it help with the decrease in green house gasses, but many places by the highways are small suburbs this is because many of the big, expensive houses are closer in town because that’s where the better views are, this means that the middle- lower class get the cheaper houses and apartments close to the high way. If there is an increase in public transportation, there will be a decrease in the amount of people affected by the air pollutants which helps people save on expensive medical bills which many in poverty can’t afford.
Urbanization creates economic growth which helps to reduce overall poverty (Ravallion, M. 2007). When urban areas are expanding, more businesses are created thus in turn creating more jobs. This also increases the mean income due to competitive wages (Ravallion, M. 2007). Allowing people to earn more, thus pulling themselves above the line of poverty (Poverty and Urbanization, 2006) or at least being able to make a wage that they can survive on. Urbanization helps this process because when more people move to the cities, there are more people on the streets to buy products from the vendors. With out this growth in the cities, the families in poverty would have a much harder time earning money. Tourism also plays a big part, people want to visit urbanized cities not only for the food but for the landscapes that can’t be seen elsewhere and a chance to experience different cultures. As more and more tourist flock to the city each year, more hotels, restaurants and stores are needed. As more businesses are needed, more workers are needed as well. 1 out of every 11 workers are employed due to tourism (Banerjee, 2018). And many more can find jobs as vendors on the streets. Reducing poverty is important so that people can focus on taking care of just more than their basic needs, such as their education.
Those who live in urban areas tend to have better education and attendance (in school) than those who live in rural areas (Bertinelli & Black, 2004). In urban areas, the places in the community are a lot closer together, making it easier for students to get their schools. With a shorter commute to school, students are more likely to attend because it’s not a huge inconvenience for them. While in rural areas students can live up to several hours away from the nearest school making it a lot less accessible for any transportation (busses, parents, ect.). This problem with rural areas can deter students from attending school and finding a job to help support their family instead. Education is important for the environment because students can learn about environmental issues and start to understand that they do have the power to impact the environment at a young age. When students bring that information home and talk to parents and siblings about it, it allows for more public awareness (EPA, 2018). If students do find a passion for the environment through education they can go on to do things such as create and operate green technologies giving the public more energy efficient products (Wan, 2013). Understanding environmental issues in school isn’t only important for future inventions but it’s also important for future voting. The more that students can be educated about their environment and the things that harm it, the better the chance is that they vote for people/laws that can help fix it. For example, when the people re-elected Richard Nixon, he signed the Clean Air Act, and created a plan of the Environmental Protection Agency (Laur, G., 2016). Education is important to the environment because it shapes the next generation and they help shape the future.
While many look down on urbanization in relation to the environment, it can be very beneficial if utilized in the right way. By providing public transportation, there is less pollution being released into the air. The less pollution there is, the more likely the urbanized area is to attract tourists therefore creating jobs and competitive wages. When people don’t have to worry about their basic needs they can afford to focus on other important things such as education. Through education about the environment, it inspires many to make a difference and find solutions to help improve the environment.
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Effect of Urbanization to the Rice Dealer
Progressively in profoundly thick urban areas, the greater part of the total population currently lives in urban regions. Anyway urban settings are a generally new marvel in mankind's history (Ritchie and Roser,2018).
Urbanization takes place when there is an overall development of a particular region. It consists of rapid population development, decrease in the proportion of agricultural workforce, and changes in land use from agricultural to nonagricultural design. The process of urbanization is continuous one and is generally influenced by various economic activities such as industrial activities, commerce and transportation. It gives rise to an urban region- location having high level of concentration and accumulation of economic activities; and is complex spatial structures that are supported by various services and infrastructures (Girma, 2004; UNHabitat 2006; Tetty, 2005).
In this process of urbanization, new industries are set up and turn helps to create huge scale employment which is very essential in growing countries. The per capita income of the people increases and the region achieves an increase in prosperity due to employment. Urbanization provides better infrastructure facilities, medical and educational opportunities to millions of people. It also helps to create a scientific attitude among mankind. The overall standard of living of the people increases considerably because of urbanization. It helps the region to prosper, to grow and cater to the needs of a bigger population. It offers plenty of chances for people from all sections of society to excel and achieve their goals (Cohen, 2007).
The rapid growth in the world economy and in the proportion of gross world product and of workers in industrial and service enterprises have underpinned urbanization. Globally, agriculture has met the demands from this quickly developing urban population, including food that is more vitality, land, water and ozone harming substances. So with regard to agriculture and urbanization, the main issues are whether the increasing and changing demands for agricultural products from developing urban populations can be sustained while at the same time underpinning agricultural prosperity and reducing poverty in urban and rural areas (Satterthwaite,2010).
As per the Sustainable Urbanization Policy Brief, right now, under 5% of the world’s landmass is made out of urban centers. As densities decline, city zones quickly grow than populations in the city itself and influence environmental supportability at a local, regional and worldwide scale. How we deal with this remarkable urban development in the next years is probably going to decide the result of our maintainability attempts.
Based on the POPCEN 2015 by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), a total population of 132, 940 in Urdaneta City had been posted. The city ranked third as the most populous local government unit in Region I. In 2015 an urbanization level of 68% is manifested in the city, the same rate in 2010. In 2017 a total of 73 Infrastructure Projects amounting to 56,045,964.89 pesos were completed.
With an increasing population leading to an increase in demand, the main drivers which determine rice production need to be identified in order to sustain the needs of the society (Vladimir and Lubos,2017). International Food Policy Research Institute predicts a 12–14 % decline in the production of rice by 2050 compared to 2000 level, with South Asia being most affected (IFPRI, 2015; Maitah et al., 2016).
Rice is the staple food of the Filipinos. It accounts for 46% and 35% of their caloric intake protein consumption (FAO 2008). As a major part of food spending, rice comprised 16% of the total expenditures of the poorest 30% of the overall population (World Bank 2007). Rice is also the most broadly developed yield in the nationoliiu, planted in about 30% of the all-out agricultural area harvested (Dawe 2003). For two million families, rice farming is the source of over half of the household income. Philippine rice production tripled from 5 million tons in 1970 to more than 16 million tons in 2008, with a 44% increase in the area harvested. Production gains fed the rapidly growing population and its increasing per-capita rice consumption (Bordey,2010).
During the last three decades of the twentieth century, record increases in rice production occurred. A typical rice supply chain in a given country is an intricate network of public and private entities that connects the rice producers, such as farmers, rice millers, rice collectors and traders, wholesale traders, retailers, and food processors, to the final consumers. Numerous nations, including the Philippines, import significant quantities of rice. A large portion of the rice devoured in the Asian nations is also imported, with the trade being managed by a handful of importing companies (Muthayya et al,2017).
Unfortunately, the future of Philippine rice production has threatened by several factors. Urbanization, industrial land-use, and competing agricultural uses have declined the physical area devoted to rice production. From 3.4 million hectares in 1991, the actual rice area decreased to 2.8 million hectares in 2001. Moreover, the declining nature of land and water assets aggravates the diminishing amount of physical resources as a result of years of mono-cropping practices (Cassman and Pingali 1995; Flinn and De Datta 1984).
It is for this concern that the researchers come up with this study. The purpose of this research is to find out the effect of urbanization to the local rice dealers in Urdaneta City, Pangasinan in terms of profit, availability of supply, and pricing. It also intends to find out whether urbanization has a positive or negative externality on agriculture and influences on food and farming of an increasingly urbanized world and a declining ratio of food producers to food consumers. This study will be significant because it addresses a very crucial part of a developing country, specifically, industrialization. It tries to find consequences of industrializing a developing country that started being agricultural in nature. Results from this study might affect the economic decision making of policy makers in the country. Lastly, it will also provide added literature to the agricultural literature of the Philippines.
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Urbanization in ‘Mr. Sammler’s Planet’
Mr. Sammler’s Planet was written by Saul Bellow in 1970. According to biography.com, Saul Bellow was a Canadian who moved to Chicago in the 1920s. His works are commonly related to analyzing the modern culture of his time. After he returned from being a marine in World War II, Bellow felt disconnected from society and this shows through his many award-winning novels. It is important to know who the author, Saul Bellow is when reading Mr. Sammler’s Planet because many of the ideas and the main character, Mr. Artur Sammler are created from Bellows personal life. Mr. Sammler’s Planet is a philosophical read that questions the reader to think about society in the big city and the values of the people who live there.
The novel begins with Mr. Artur Sammler, a Polish Holocaust survivor living in New York City. He is an isolated man who has lost sight in one of his eyes due to being struck with a gun butt. Mr. Sammler is captivated by a pick pocket that he watches everyday on the bus and participates in a lecture at Columbia University that did not go the way he wished. To say the least, Sammler is a pessimistic man. He is old and isolated from society. He views his daughter as “his only contribution to the continuation of the species!' (Bellow p.116) While viewing the world and the people in it with a critical eye, the man muses over current events and analyzes them with his historical and philosophical knowledge. He notes that society has ruined our planet multiple times throughout the novel. Many of the changes he brings up are due to the rapid growth of urbanization happening around him.
Sammler is more of a thinker than he is a man of action. He holds in his thoughts of society and is conflicted with the ideas of acting on what he sees or remaining a bystander. This is showed early on when Mr. Sammler sees the pickpocket and tries to call the police. Sammler knows that there are things that are permitted to be spoken aloud and then there are thoughts that are too impolite to be heard. Besides that, another thing that is brought up often within the novel is the moon landing. The setting of novel is not only New York, but New York in the excitement of the summer of the moon landing. It’s seen as a new potential for life outside of Earth. Mr. Sammler believes that all of this is absurd and is an attempt of escape from the problems that have been created by humans here. Mr. Sammler is ready for the death of the world, perhaps because of the horrific acts he has witnessed in his past. In the novel it says “Like many people who had seen the world collapse once, Mr. Sammler entertained the possibility that it might collapse twice” (Bellow 33). Mr. Sammler looks at what society has transformed into. He’s seen the darkest parts of humanity and now it’s all that clouds his vision. Humanity, along with modernism is not a positive in his eye, but something that is likely to come due to the people surrounding him who are crazed with all of the possibilities of the future that they see before them. Sammler believes that this attitude, the one that promotes luxury has only led humanity to greater issues. Luxury and materialistic values, encouraged by urbanization only leads to more struggles within society.
Mr. Sammler’s Planet is a novel only spanning a few days in a life of a man, preparing for the death of his relative Elya Gruner. Mr. Sammler is a man who has removed himself from society internally, but is still physically living in the midst of it. At times, he makes death seem more like the prize and survival, more like a burden. He doesn’t like to consider himself a survivor of the Holocaust, but instead says 'It wasn't surviving, it was only lasting' (Bellow p. 91). He is doing his best to comprehend the world and the people around him. Even though the ones around him are losing their Jewish traditions in place of their urban New York ones. In its most basic summary, this novel is about man’s interactions with a society who has been urbanized around him. At the end of the novel, Mr. Sammler finds compassion towards the people around him. Sammler begins to mention God near the end amidst his philosophical musings. At one point in the novel he says that he enjoys reading the bible, but does not believe in it. Thinking of the bible leads him to think of the progression of man. He separates him from his own species, who has organized the planet in such a detailed way. He summarizes that some people are working and some people are sleeping “And that is how this brilliant human race runs this wheeling globe” (Bellow 254). He concludes the novel by speaking to God, saying 'For that is the truth of it - that we all know, God, that we know, that we know, we know, we know” (Bellow 313). Urbanization is all around Mr. Sammler and it is the base of all of the issues he finds in society.
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Urbanization in China
Urbanization is happening every day in almost every country, it has positive and negative effects.
Why is it happening and what is China’s government doing about it?
In only a few decades, it is estimated that 70% of the world's population will live in urban areas and 60% of land that is planned to become urban by 2030 has yet to even be built. (“Sustainable Urbanization”) This means that most land that is rural and not even developed yet currently will be developed into cities in as little as a decade.
If most of the population is moving to more urban areas, how will that influence a country’s people, government, and land?
Humans are building cities about the size of vancouver every week.(“Global Impact of Urbanization”) This rate of urbanization has never been this large before and it will only continue to grow. Urbanization is the shift or movement of a population from rural areas to urban areas and the way each environment adapts to the shift. What is classified as an urban area is cities that contain a population of 10,000 to 50,000 people. In this essay, the focus is on the effects from the shift of urbanization on China. In China, this shift is growing very rapidly with only a few decades go, only 13% of China’s population lived in urban areas. In 2010, the rate of people living in urban areas climbed about 32%. And in 2011, the urban population surpassed the rural one. (Karen C. Seto) China is a very large country and about 30 of the world’s largest cities are located there. China is also one of the world’s four ancient civilization and started growing the day it began. In that time, almost everyone made a living working in urban areas. Some cities have always been large and have experienced more growth than other cities like Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou and are still experiencing urbanization and are undergoing a third phase of development and transition. (Karen C. Seto) However, there are cities that are just beginning their urbanization process. To fully understand the growth, one cannot simply visit Shanghai or a larger city and not a smaller city. In most of the bigger cities there is a very diverse, large, and educated labor pool and a very modern pool of consumers.
What is causing this theme of growth in China?
The urbanization in China has several factors. These factors include being listed as special economic zones by the government, a want for a better life quality, and a need for more workers due to cheaper manufacture taxes. In 1978, the Reform and Opening Up policy brought in China's phenomenal economic growth. China’s government labeled some cities as special economic zones and enforced a new type of economic policies, and those locations developed rapidly due to them. Subsequently, a large increase of investments from investors all over the world started piling in. In those special economic zones, the urbanization process began and we can see the building and expansion of housing, factories, and roads etc. This influx of money gave these cities a head start in terms of economic development. This head start made people from rural areas become more attracted to urban areas due to their success. With an increase of money, an increase of education and government funded facilities followed. This leads to an increase of urban migration. People want a better life for themselves and their family. This includes better paying jobs and a better education. Better education leads to more opportunities and a better way of life. China is also known as being very cheap to manufacture products from and still leads in toy production. Low labor costs in China led to a decrease in variable and unit costs. China can make things cheaper than it can be made in other western manufacturing areas such as the US or Canada. Due to this, many people want to produce their products in China due to it costing less. More demand for products equals more demand for factory workers. For people wanting a better quality of life, a job in manufacturing may sound more appealing than a job in rural areas and may pay more. This would cause more to move to urban areas for better jobs and ultimately a better life for them and their families. All these examples lead to urbanization because they all are controlled by money. Money is a very common way to a better quality of life, which mostly everyone wants. People will move to where money is, and more money is to most likely be made in urban areas over rural ones.
In Planet of Slums by Mike Davis, one of the main themes is urbanization. He speaks about the causes and effects of such rapid growth. “Mega cities with more than 8 million residents and hyper cities with more than 20 million residents are more and more common” (Davis P.5). Davis emphasizes how rapid this growth is and how “in many cases rural people no longer have to migrate to the city; it migrates to them. “(P.9) This quotes shows how big cities are getting and how it is affecting rural land whether people like it or not. He talks about the positive effects and negative effects like hurting small businesses and old traditions. He also highlights on how large cities begin and that they aren’t always built on lots of money and lots of cities were built in nations where poverty is common. “The size of a city’s economy, as a result, often bears surprisingly little relationship to its population’s size and vice versa” (P.13) Many people try and shoot their shot at a better life when the move to cities, even when they themselves are coming from poverty. This is odd but true, even though expenses in urban areas cost more.
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Effects on the American Colonies: the French and Indian War
The United States: the greatest country to ever exist in human history, was formed through a gruesome war with the most powerful entity known to man at the time, Great Britain. All Americans know about how the American Revolution birthed this great country, but many do not understand or even know about one of the major driving forces behind the cause of the American Revolution, resulting in the 13 British colonies breaking off from the crown. This driving force was a war that took place some twenty years before the start of the Revolution. The outcome of this war would indefinitely cultivate the conditions in British North America for the spark of revolution to arise. This was the French and Indian War, and its outcomes left a lasting impact on colonial Americans, later ensuing a revolution like no other, and eliciting the birth of a new nation.
Great Britain and France, perhaps historically the biggest rivals in the world, were at war with each other from 1754 to 1763. The French and Indian War was the North American stage of the Seven Years War, which was a worldwide conflict involving every major European power at the time. The war in North America was primarily a result of control over trade disputes between Great Britain and France. Trade routes in North America were vital to the economic success of both France and Great Britain, and the victor of the French and Indian War would ultimately control all territory in North America. In addition to a dispute over trade routes, the French feared British expansion in North America as well as around the globe. British settlers were moving westward into French lands as the population of the British colonies grew. Consequently, the French were also fighting to protect their borders in North America. Despite the fact that the French and Indian War was a conflict between two major European powers, colonists in North America played a significant role in the war effort (“French and Indian War Videos”).
The fighting spirit of colonists on both the French and British sides would ultimately dictate the future of both France and Great Britain, deciding which power would keep their lands in North America, and which power would lose both their territory and much of their economic might. All across the British colonies, militiamen volunteered to fight for the cause of their mother country. However, some colonists were not easily convinced to take up arms. As a result of this, William Pitt, the architect of the mighty British Empire, offered colonists pay if they fought for Great Britain. Because of Pitt’s idea to give colonists a paycheck for their service, many men joined militias and fought for the British. Colonists took charge in the war and helped the British cause. A prime example of colonial leaders in the war is George Washington. Washington lead troops throughout the conflict, aiding the British cause and fighting the French (“Great Meadows”). Washington would later become a major opponent of the British during the American Revolution, commanding the American army throughout the war. Despite the valor and grit displayed by the colonists fighting for their mother country, Britain did not recognize their efforts and mistreated them during and after the war. This mistreatment, among other grievances, would lead the colonists who once fought for Britain to turn against their mother country in order to create a new one.
The French and Indian War resulted in a British victory over the French, which meant that Great Britain gained control of all territory in North America previously occupied by France. This new territorial gain would lead to the mistreatment of British colonists in North America. For as long as Great Britain had colonies in her possession, colonists were treated as second class citizens. This unequal view of colonists by the British government became very evident during and after the French and Indian War. Colonists did not receive recognition for their efforts in the war, nor did they receive any sort of reward. Instead, the British government abused their power over the colonies.
A key example of mistreatment occurred during the war in the year 1758. After colonial forces captured the French port city of Louisbourg, Nova Scotia, the British government gave the city back to France in exchange for the city of Madras in India. At the time, India was becoming an important colony for Great Britain economically, and politically, with many untapped resources and an abundance of trade routes. Madras was controlled by the French initially, and the British, seeing the leverage that they had with the capture of Louisbourg, knew that an exchange could be made in order to attain the Indian city. Returning Louisbourg to the French was a ‘slap in the face’ to the British colonists in North America who fought so valiantly in trying to capture Louisbourg. The exchange of Louisbourg for Madras did not benefit the North American colonies in any way, and only benefited the interests of the British government and their ever-growing global empire. The once-strong relationship between Great Britain and her American colonies was beginning to deteriorate, and further injustices brought upon the colonies would eventually push them to their breaking point.
The British victory over France in the French and Indian War ended up costing Great Britain large sums of money, leaving the empire in serious debt. Britain turned to her American colonies to help pay it off. The British government reasoned that since the war was fought in the colonies, the colonies should pay for the cost of the war. This was completely unfair to the colonists, who fought for their mother country even though the conflict was between two major European powers, fought over European issues. Nevertheless, colonists were taxed heavily after the French and Indian War. New taxes such as the “Stamp Act” and the “Sugar Act” were imposed on the colonists (“Effects of the War”). These new taxes took away from the salutary neglect of the colonists. Salutary neglect is, “the policy of the British government from the early to mid-18th century regarding its North American colonies under which trade regulations for the colonies were laxly enforced and imperial supervision of internal colonial affairs was loose as long as the colonies remained loyal to the British government” (“Salutary Neglect”). While implementing these new taxes, the British government did not allow the colonists to have a say about the issue. No colonist could have a seat in Parliament, so no colonist could debate whether taxes should be implemented or not. Because colonists were being taxed without a seat in Parliament, they came up with the phrase, “no taxation without representation,” and this phrase would be a rallying cry of the colonists leading up to the Revolution (“Do You Know What ‘No Taxation Without Representation’ Means?”).
Salutary neglect became a very important issue leading up to the Revolutionary War. Britain started to govern her colonies with more force, taking away their freedoms and completely discarding the policy of loose imperial supervision. Because of the events of the French and Indian War and the attempt of keeping their economic status, Britain “dramatically altered its policies,” (“The Coming of Independence, 1754 - 1776”) towards the American colonies. Two events in the 1760’s would cause a major shift of colonial view towards the mother country of Great Britain. The first event is Pontiac’s Rebellion, which occurred in 1763. Once Britain gained significant territory in North America after the French and Indian War, colonists sought to move westward. This westward expansion angered Native Americans, whose land was being stripped away from them. In addition to taking over Native territory, the British, unlike the French, did not give the Native Americans an annual gift. As a response to these injustices, the Native Americans took up arms against the British (“Pontiac’s Rebellion Begins”). In an effort to make peace with the Natives after Pontiac’s Rebellion, Great Britain issued the Proclamation of 1763, hoping to stop the violence. The Proclamation stated that settlers would stay east of the Appalachian Mountains and Natives would stay west of the mountains, in order to avoid further conflict. (“Proclamation of 1763”) . Just like the unfair taxes, colonists saw the Proclamation to be imposing on their salutary neglect. The British government was now telling the colonists where they could and could not live, governing the colonies with more and more force, taking away their freedoms. With the harsh mistreatment by the British government, as well as the destruction of several of their freedoms, the colonists began to turn away from Great Britain, the country for which they so fearlessly fought for only a few years prior.
One final factor, known as The Great Awakening, drove the American colonies away from Great Britain. This movement, which occurred in the 1730’s, introduced new styles of worship throughout the colonies. Preachers such as Jonathan Edwards preached with fire and fury, damning sinners to hell and describing God as an “Angry Judge.” An important factor about Edwards was that he refused to join the Church of England. Edwards had a completely different preaching style than anyone else, especially those in the Church of England. Because of Edwards, new and different churches sprung up across New England as well as other colonies. People in America could now choose their own religion. “The new faiths that emerged were much more democratic in their approach. The overall message was one of greater equality.” Not all Awakening preachers were ordained, which meant that ?any ?man could could hold the job. These democratic ideas struck colonists in the 1760s and 1770s, when Great Britain became more oppressive to the colonies during and after the French and Indian War. Because of the Great Awakening, colonists reasoned that if they could choose their own religion, why could they not choose their own government? (“The Great Awakening”).
Oppression, mistreatment, taxation without representation, an invasion of salutary neglect, and the revitalization of the ideas of the Great Awakening were all factors that pushed the American colonies of Great Britain over the edge, causing them to take up arms against their own mother country. Militiamen and a rag-tag army were to take head-on the greatest superpower known to man at the time. Despite the odds against the colonists, they had a fighting spirit like no other, tired of being oppressed and treated like second class citizens. The French and Indian War, as well as its aftermath, would lead American colonists to another war some twenty years later, against the very country that it fought to protect.
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Policy Project: Opioid Epidemic
In our research out group has identified the following problems that affect healthcare, the opioid epidemic, health disparities in minorities, specifically organ and bone marrow donation, prescription drug abuse, and lack of fertility insurance coverage. We will provide a more detailed discussion throughout this brief.
The opioid epidemic dates all the way back to the 1980’s when the government loosened restrictions against prescribing pain medications. Since then physicians have been overprescribing opioids as a way for patients to deal with their pain. Today, approximately 175 Americans are dying everyday due to the opioid epidemic. There are several different types of opioids that are both prescribed and illegal. Some natural opiates include morphine, codeine, heroin and opium. Synthetic opioids include oxycodone, Percodan, methadone, hydrocodone, fentanyl, meperidine, and hydromorphone. Opioids work by releasing dopamine in the brain which creates a pleasurable feeling. The pleasurable feeling that people get from the opioid is what makes them want more and more causing an addiction. Opioids can be a form of treatment but it can also be very dangerous to anyone, which is why it is important for Americans to be aware of the problem and create a solution so the opioid epidemic will stop growing.
The opioid epidemic is growing in the United States each year. In 2017, 2.1 million people had an opioid disorder and 47,600 of those people died from overdosing on opioids. This number continues to grow because there is a lack of treatment options or the people cannot afford the treatment they need. As a result, we would like to provide free treatment programs to those suffering from opioid addiction. Given the purchasing power of the government, the group estimates the cost of a 3 month treatment program for opioid patients at approximately $5,000.
Americans suffer from pain every day and in result consult a physician for help, which in return results in an opioid prescription to manage that pain. More than 650,000 opioid prescriptions are dispensed, on average, daily in the US. The patients that are taking opioid prescriptions for their pain management risk the side effect that causes drug dependency or otherwise addiction. As a result, we would like to enforce a procedure for prescribing physicians to go through all options before prescribing opioids to their patients. The group estimates the cost at $0.
The two interest groups that are for free opioid addiction programs are the American Association for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence and Narcotics Overdose Prevention & Education (NOPE).
The American Association for the Treatment of opioid Dependence (AATOD) would be for the proposed policy. The AATOD works with federal and state agency officials concerning the opioid treatment policy. Their main focus is to help patients get reimbursements from Medicaid for their opioid treatment. Given this data, the AAOTD would be behind the proposed policy because their main focus is getting help for those suffering with opioid addiction without them having to worry about the cost.
NOPE is a program that provides resources to those struggling with opioid problems and to those that know of people that have an addiction. This program is a way for people of all ages to find out what options they do have to get help. NOPE also provides scholarships to those that want help but cannot afford to get the help they need. Given this data, NOPE would be behind this proposal idea because they are an organization that wants to help everyone who is struggling and they want to help in any way that they can including financial guidance.
Interest groups that would be against this proposal would be providers that prescribe the prescriptions and insurance companies. Both providers and insurance companies would be against this proposal because they would lose money and business if a free addiction program was to be granted. The two interest groups that would support our solution to overprescribing opioids by physicians are The Prescription Opioid and Pan Workgroup (POP) and The Physicians for Responsible Opioid Prescribing (PROP).
The Prescription Opioid and Pain Workgroup would support our solution because they are a group that provides a forum for the scientific and clinical disciplines at NIDA to share current information, new initiatives and progress on the growing problem of prescription drugs. POP is concerned with prescription opioids and has released data showing that prescriptions given out have doubled but pain relief has not been improved.
The Physicians for Responsible Opioid Prescribing is a group that advocates for state and federal policies that promote more cautious prescribing practices. In some cases opioids may be the only solution to patients’ treatment plan, however, the physician needs to make sure that the patient knows all the risks and that they are not prescribing the patient too much. PROP provides physicians and patients with the right education they need when it comes to opioid prescriptions.
The two interest groups that would be against our solution to overprescribing opioids by physicians are The Academy of Integrative Pain Management and the creators of opioids.
One interest group that would not support our solution to overprescribing opioids is the Academy of Integrative Pain Management. The Academy of Integrative Pain Management was accused of receiving 1.3 million dollars from five companies that make opioids. In return they were to promote opioids for patients in search of help with pain management. As long as companies are receiving money they will keep promoting opioids. The second interest group that would not support our solution to overprescribing opioids would be the makers of the opioids. The makers of the drugs will not receive a profit if physicians quit prescribing them.
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Addressing the Opioid Epidemic
“The year 2017 saw over 70,000 overdose deaths in America.”According to the novel Opioid use disorder: A Holistic Guide to Assessment,Treatment, and Recovery by Charles Atkins. “ Over 70% of those who become opioid dependent begin with prescription pain medications, either prescribed (about 30%) or obtained from friends and family (over 40%). Americans consume over 90% of the worlds pharmaceutical opioids with enough prescriptions written annually for everyone to have at least one bottle.” The opioid epidemic is a serious problem, and those deaths just keep increasing each year. According to the World Health Organization “Opioids are psychoactive substances derived from the opium poppy.” Opioids affect the body and can be harmful, they can cause a dependence to the drug, and can be dangerous if used during pregnancy.
Opioids are created to replicate the pain reducing properties of opium, and they can include legal painkillers as well. Due to the effect opioids have on the part of brain that regulates breathing an overdose can lead to respiratory failure. Depending on the type of opioid there can be several side effects to certain parts of the body. Chronic use of opioids can lead to the development of hyperalgesia, which is a syndrome of increased sensitivity to pain. Abuse of opioids can also be associated with psychomotor impairment, which can overall slow down a person’s physical movements and cause a loss of coordination.
Not only can opioids have an effect on ones nervous system, but they can also affect the respiratory system. Overdosing on opioid painkillers can lead to respiratory depression, which is a slowing of breathing. This can cause respiratory arrest, and can deprive the brain of oxygen, which can be very dangerous and fatal. Furthermore opiates can damage ones digestive system. According to Drugabuse.com “Opiates affect the muscles of the digestive system, leading to constipation due to a slowing of digestive transit.” Chronic constipation, can put people at heightened risk for small bowel obstruction, perforation and a serious infection in the abdomen which is called peritonitis.
Opiates can affect ones liver greatly, especially when combined with acetaminophen. Excessive use of drugs can cause the liver to damage from the acetaminophen toxicity. According to Drugabuse.com “Damage to the liver from acetaminophen toxicity is an undeniable risk of taking excessive doses of many prescription painkillers such as Lortab, Norco and Vicodin”. Many opiate users drink alcohol, liver function is impaired and damaged. This decreases the liver’s ability to process the combination of these two substances.
Most importantly, opioids can be harmful to the brain. Opiate painkillers have side effects such as daytime sleepiness. An example of an opioid that is harmful to the brain is heroin. Using this drug excessively can cause someone to slip in and out of consciousness. If on painkillers for a long period of time, patients can be at a heightened risk for developing depression. According to Drugabuse.com, “Patients using painkillers in excess of six months had more than 50 percent greater chance of developing a depressive episode.
Subsequently, opioids can affect one’s body by its opioid receptors. There are several types, for example: Delta receptors produce analgesia which enhances mood, anxiety, and depression. Another one is Kappa receptors which induce analgesia, that is associated with emotional changes, like sadness. An additional component to opioid addiction is dependence. Dependence occurs when an individual stops the substance within an expected amount of time, resulting in the person experiencing a withdrawal symptom. The feeling of withdrawal is usually a serious case of the flu and emotional distress. Some common signs and symptoms of opioid withdrawal are rapid breathing and sweating.
Not only can someone develop a dependence but also a tolerance to opioids. According to Charles Atkins in his novel (Opioid Use Disorders: A Holistic Guide to Assessment, Treatment, and Recovery) he states, “Tolerance is a major cause of progression in patterns of usage.” Most people start by just taking pills, and then escalate to snorting, or injecting themselves with needles. To feel some type of pain relief the person takes higher doses to get the same effect, which causes them to develop a tolerance to the drug. According to an article from CNN, opioids “activate reward areas of the brain by releasing the hormone dopamine, creating a feeling of euphoria or a “high”’. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, which in oftentimes is referred to as the “reward system” or also known as the mesolimbic pathway. In Opioid Use Disorder: A Holistic Guide to Assessment, Treatment, and Recovery it states “Once bound to these receptors, dopamine is released, and we experience euphoria and other pleasurable arousal, and diminished anxiety and depression. In time, what starts as a learning process, “Gee, snorting oxycodone feels awesome,” creates cellular (synaptic) changes to where the snorting of oxycodone is a hardwired memory.” Clearly, the effects on the brain can be highly influenced by opiates.
Even though in some cases opioids are prescribed to women during pregnancy, there are still several risks and it can be dangerous not only to the mother but to the unborn baby. Some opioids that pregnant women are prescribed are pain relievers like, oxycodone, hydrocodone, fentanyl, and tramadol. Furthermore Neural tube defects can occur, which is a birth defect of the brain, spine, and spinal cord. Preterm delivery and miscarriage are possible, and even stunted growth which leads to low birthweight. Not using the prescribed doses can be very harmful to the fetus. Lastly, the baby can have Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS), which happens when a baby is exposed to a drug from within the womb before being born and undergoes a withdrawal from the drug after being born. “NAS can cause serious problems for a baby, like being born too small and having breathing problems.” (March for Dimes)
Babies who are exposed to opioids before being born are also at risk for birth defects. Some birth defects include heart defects and spina bifida.“Birth defects change the shape or function of one or more parts of the body. They can cause problems in overall health, how the body develops, or in how the body works.” (March for Dimes). Spina bifida is one of the most common neural tube defects in babies who are exposed to opiates. More so that it is highly recommended to not stop taking opiates while pregnant. If someone was to stop they could risk placental abruption, which is when the placenta separates from the wall of the uterus before birth. The placenta can either separate partially or completely. This occurs when the placenta ruptures and causes heavy bleeding and can be life threatening to both the mom and baby. This is a serious condition because the placenta supplies the baby with food and oxygen through the umbilical cord.
Most people get addicted to opioids after being prescribed to it. “The majority of people with opioid use disorders use prescription pills. This speaks to the truism that opioid use disorders start in the medicine cabinet and not on the street.” (Opioid Use Disorder: A Holistic Guide to Assessment, Treatment, and Recovery By: Charles Atkins). This is very alarming, and proves that the opioid epidemic in the United States basically stems from prescribed pain killers. According to the book Opioid Use Disorder, the people who had the highest rates of death were in the ages 25-34, 35-44, and 45-54. Another group of people that are put at high risk for an opioid use disorder are people with mental health problems. People who are prescribed opiates for an injury are at heightened risk because they are given strong medication for pain relief. Young adults prescribed opiates before the age of 18 are at high risk for opioid disorders as well.
People dependent on opioids are most likely to suffer from an overdose. According to World Health Organization, “Because of their capacity to cause respiratory depression, opioids are responsible for a high proportion of fatal drug overdoses around the world.” Overdose deaths have increased due to them being prescribed for chronic pain. People are given these opioids to control their pain, from their doctors but after the dosage is up people can become very addictive. Over the years deaths have increased because doctors are recommending them to patients, and more and more people are being exposed to opioids.
To conclude, the deaths from opioids continue to rise each year. They are very harmful to the body, and taking them in excessive amounts and lead to death. Opioids affect the brain, respiratory system, digestive system, the nervous system, and the liver. People who are on opiates can later develop a tolerance and a dependence which can be dangerous. Not only are opiates dangerous to people of practically all ages, when taken in large amounts. But can also be dangerous when prescribed to pregnant women. They cannot only be harmful to the mother but to the baby as well. There are several risks when taking opioids and can easily be fatal if not careful. Opioids are a very serious problem in the United States, and those drugs can even be in your medicine cabinet.
Bibliography
- Atkin, Charles “Opioid Use Disorder: A Holistic Guide to Assessment, Treatment, and Recovery” PESI Publishing & Media
- https://www.cnn.com/2017/09/18/health/opioid-crisis-fast-facts/index.html
- CNN Library, April 11, 2019
- https://drugabuse.com/featured/the-effects-of-opiates-on-the-body/
- https://medlineplus.gov/opioidabuseandaddiction.html
- https://medlineplus.gov/pregnancyandopioids.html
- https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/information-sheet/en/
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The Rwandan Genocide was a Horrible Situation
A realist is someone who approaches situations like the Rwandan Genocide with the only national interest in mind and has extremely narrow terms. If the wealth, territory, natural resources, and military of the nation is not influenced positively they refuse to get involved with other nations. A realist likes to keep the interest of their nation in mind, they tend to worry less about others and more about themselves. An example of a realist is John Quincy Adams. Adams believed that the U.S should not go looking to fix other problems along with Washington and the “Great Rule”. The great rule states that the U.S alliances should rarely interfere with other nations politically. A realist believes that we should stay out of other problems to lessen the chances of corrupting American and also wondered how do we determine which side of the situation is the right side.
A Liberal internationalist is someone who approaches the same type of situation with views of promotion for their nation, such as free trade, human rights, the rule of law, democracy promotions and more. Liberal internationalist use multilateralism organizations such as the UN, NATO, and the G-7 to help them advance America in the world. Multilateralism is the role of combining nations and states to help other nations and states in a time of need.
A realist president would look at the Rwandan Genocide and refer back to the PDD-25 to determine if the U.S should get involved or not. According to the PDD-25, there is only one criterion met which is the idea that if the international peace and the security of the nation were in danger, which is also paired with human right troubles and violence. Because this was the only criteria of the five total criteria, a realist president would not get involved. If the president was a liberal internationalist they would also look at the PDD-25. Again, the first criteria of the PDD-25 would be considered (the threat of the nations security and international peace). Another criteria that would be considered is the multilateral basis of only dealing with a problem that advances the nation through trade, human rights, rule of law, or democracy promotions, which would then make it an international community. A liberal internationalist president has a higher chance of interfering with the Rwandan Genocide, however, I do not believe that they would. I believe this because they would look at the others who got involved, they would question the advancement of the nation, along with the diseases that could potentially spread to the U.S. and this would make the U.S. hesitant to get involved with something that could so negatively impact the U.S.
The 1994 president, Bill Clinton, did not want to get involved, he even asked other political candidates to not use the ‘g’ word in fear that the U.S would be forced to get involved based off of the Genocide Treaty the U.S signed in February of 1988. This treaty stated that if any nation admitted to being under attack by genocide, the U.S. must get involved. I believe that Bill Clinton, along with a realist or a liberal internationalist president did or would have made the right decision.
The Rwandan Genocide was a horrible situation and something needed to be done to help end the problem, however, I feel like it is not the U.S’s job to interfere with every other nations problem. We as a nation need to focus first on ourselves, then other nations. It is a lot like the airplane and air mask example that many people use. This illustration states that in a plane crash, someone must first put their air mask on before they can help someone else put their mask on. This example is a good reason to why the U.S should not have gotten involved, if the U.S. was to get involved with the Rwandan Genocide we would have been suffocated by negative impacts of diseases that could easily have been spread to the U.S., the millions of U.S. soldiers being killed fighting in the genocide, along with the very little advancement the U.S would be receiving. In conclusion, The U.S. may have suffered from the judgment of other nations, however, we did what was thought to be the best for the nation and at the end of the day, that is all we could have done.
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America’s Opioid Epidemic Essay
The opioid epidemic has been a great issue in the nation. There are many tragic situation of the prescription drug affecting someone's life for the worse. In this policy memo, I will be discussion and informing the issues and the controversy of the opioid epidemic and will be giving background information of this epidemic and how it originated.
This epidemic has been an issue since the 1990’s. According to the National Capital Poison center, The use of opioids increased in 1991, where the prescription drug was greatly influenced and prescribed by many pharmaceutical companies. The companies promoted this prescription drug by stating that the chances of becoming addicted were slim to none. They began prescribing opioids to non-cancerous reasons without enough data that stated the effects of this prescription drug. Then in 2010, began an increase in deaths and the increase of heroin use. Around this time, they noticed how opioids affect the people in a negative way which they began to limit the use of opioids. The use of heroin increased due to the limits of prescription and obtaining opioids because heroin was a cheap alternative for the use. This increased the rates in deaths and also increased the chance of transmitting a disease such as HIV, hepatitis or infections in the skin. This epidemic also introduced a new drug in the market which is a synthetic opioid, fentanyl which caused even more deaths in 2013. This epidemic all tied back to the pharmaceutical’s generous distribution of opioids in the nation, new drugs were manufactured and distributed that are incredibly dangerous which caused a huge amount of deaths in the nation.
This graph illustrates the amount of deaths that have been caused by the opioid epidemic. As you can see there is an increase in the deaths that occur due to the opioid epidemic. The opioid epidemic is a nationwide issue that affects americans. Having chronic pain of some sort can lead to the prescription of opioids and can increase the risk of misusing this drug. It can be so innocent before you know that you are depending on this highly addictive drug. It can be a simple prescription that can lead to an individual becoming highly addicted to opioids.
According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, you can become highly addicted to this drug by using it without a prescription, using the drug in ample amounts than should or in a longer period of time than should, or if they are used in any other reason that what the doctor prescribed. This public health crisis is in most cases not intentional and can become highly addictive quick.
In 2017. President Trump began an initiative to stop the opioid crisis. According to the whitehouse.gov, there was demand to stop over-prescription, by educating americans of this highly addictive drug and also began cutting the amount of supply in the public by finding the sources of where they were distributed. Then he began assisting those in need of rehabilitation through treatment and support services. Donald Trump and congress worked to pass the SUPPORT act in order to help the drug crisis. This assistance cut the number of heroin users by more than half in July 2017 and helped limit the prescription of this drug by 16 percent.
Throughout my whole research on this topic, I learned that there is no debate that the opioid crisis is a great issue in the United States of America. The debate is whether it should be stopped at all costs or if they should continue to distribute opioids and limit the doses and the potency of the drug. According to Dr. con Gunten, the president of medical affairs hospice and palliative medicine at Ohio Health Kobacker House, he believes that there should be access of these opioids in treating moderate to severe pain like cancer. He also states that there are studies that the risk of becoming addicted is in age, “ Although the prevalence among those older than age 18 is .37%, the prevalence decreases with increasing age”. The chance of becoming addicted to this substance decreases as you become older. The issue in this is that many doctors have been afraid to prescribed this drug due to liability.
According to the Washingtons Post, there has been many approaches in the epidemic from each house of congress. They have been making influences to stop the flow of fentanyl from transporting here internationally. There is still a lot of work to do, but as of right now we are aware that this epidemic will cost the United States billions of dollars to fix
Reference
- Public Affairs. (n.d.). What is the U.S. Opioid Epidemic? Retrieved April 30, 2019, from https://www.hhs.gov/opioids/about-the-epidemic/index.html
- (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/report_3210/ShortReport-3210.html
- National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2019, January 22). Opioid Overdose Crisis. Retrieved
- April 30, 2019, from https://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/opioids/opioid-overdose-crisis
- Opioid Epidemic. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2019, from https://www.naccho.org/programs/community-health/injury-and-violence/opioid-epidemic
- (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2019, from https://www.poison.org/articles/opioid-epidemic-history-and-prescribing-patterns-182
- Ending America's Opioid Crisis. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2019, from https://www.whitehouse.gov/opioids/
- The Great Opioid Debate: Treating Cancer Pain Safely. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2019,
- from https://www.ascopost.com/issues/december-25-2018/the-great-opioid-debate/
Cite this page
America's Opioid Epidemic Essay. (2021, Mar 17).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
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The Opioid Crisis: a Comprehensive Review
Introduction
The opioid crisis has become a growing concern in the United States. Due to the increased availability, either legally or otherwise, of these highly potent substances, the number of people overdosing on opioids has substantially increased over the last couple of years. While there have been numerous efforts by stakeholders in the medical community, law enforcement and Government to curb the spread of this epidemic, a lot remains to be done. This paper will examine the opioid crisis in considerable detail, touching on its history, relevant statistics and potential solutions to help control its spread.
Opioids are defined as a large group of drugs that work by interacting with opioid receptors in the body in order to help alleviate pain.1 Its pharmacological effects are derived from an interaction between the opioid and proteins called receptors found in the brain, spinal cord and other parts of the body. When an opioid is ingested, it travels through the blood stream and interacts with these receptors in the brain cells. This interaction triggers a host of chemical reactions that eventually results in a decreased perception of pain and an increased feeling of pleasure1.
Opioids are effective pain medications used by a variety of patient populations. These include patients needing post-surgical pain relief, cancer related pain, sports related injuries, chronic headaches etc. While opioids have been successful in providing pain relief, its use has also been associated with some risks and side effects. Some of the most commonly recorded side effects include nausea, constipation and drowsiness. While these may be benign, opioid use has also been associated with life threatening side effects like respiratory depression, bradycardia, otherwise known as slow heart rate and loss of consiousness2
Besides the aforementioned side effects, long term opioid use could result in irregularities in the brain that eventually manifest as tolerance, dependence and addiction3. Opioid tolerance occurs due to repeated exposure of the opioid receptors to increasing doses of opioids, leading to brain changes that require the user to take higher doses of the drug to achieve the same effect. Dependence, which results from tolerance, occurs when the opioid user can only function normally in the presence of the drug. Lastly, addiction, which leads to the opioid crisis discussed in detail later on in this paper, occurs as a result of prolonged opioid use which produces sustained changes in the brain that result in a powerful urge to use the drug. Opioids are generally divided into three classes based on their origin:
- Naturally occurring opioids: These are compounds that are found occurring naturally in plants. Examples of naturally occurring opioids are; Morphine, codeine and Thebaine4
- Semi-synthetic opioids: Unlike naturally occurring opioids, semisynthetic opioids do not occur naturally but are created in the laboratory using natural opiates as a starting point. Examples of semi synthetic opioids include oxycodone, hydromorphone and hydrocodone5
- Fully Synthetic opioids: These opioids are entirely manmade and imitate the effects of naturally occurring opioids. The most popular synthetic opioids are fentanyl, methadone and tramadol5
The opioid crisis is a public health and national emergency that stems from an incessant use of prescription and illegal opioids resulting in drug overdose, hospitalizations, infectious diseases, lost productivity, criminal activity and death8. According to Health Resources and Service Administration (HRSA), “More than 130 people a day die from opioid related drug overdoses”9. In the 18-year period from 1999 to 2017, nearly 400,000 deaths were attributable to opioid overdose7. Figure 1 below describes the three phases of opioid overdose related deaths. In phase 1 which began in the 1990’s, overdose deaths involved prescription opioids. This phase lasted until about 1999. In early 2010, the second phase was ushered in by an increase in overdose deaths involving heroin. The third phase of opioid related deaths started in 2013 as there was a significant increase in the death toll involving illegally produced fentanyl.
Although the abuse of opioids has permeated every demographic in the US, it is noteworthy that males between 25 and 44 are the worst hit, with the largest increases in the number of overdose deaths. Teenagers, pregnant women and veterans have also experienced worrisome rates of addiction. It is no secret that veterans who return from battle often have a hard time getting reintegrated into civilian society. Many of them face feelings of isolation, trouble finding a new career path, reestablishing relationships with friends etc. This causes them to seek refuge in substances with high abuse potential such as drugs, alcohol and opioids. In the same way, more and more pregnant women have been found to be addicted to opioids. These women typically use prescription opioids prior to pregnancy and continue on during pregnancy. This could have devastating effects on the health of the woman and her unborn baby. According to the Center for Disease Control and prevention (CDC), the number of opioid dependent pregnant women at labor and delivery quadrupled during a fifteen-year period from 1999 to 2014. Lastly, teenagers who might have suffered from accidents requiring analgesics to control pain unfortunately develop a tolerance that eventually morphs into addiction. On the other hand, other factors including mental and emotional issues could steer some teenagers down the path of opioid misuse. In 2016, over 250,000 teenagers between 12 and 18 used opioids for non-medical reasons while over 120,000 were addicted to prescription opioids. These findings demonstrate the catastrophic impact of the opioid crisis on families throughout the US.
Geographically speaking, in the U.S., the Appalachian states of West Virginia and Ohio have been the worst hit. The National Institute of Drug Abuse reports that in 2016, West Virginia and Ohio suffered a combined 73.6 opioid relate overdose deaths per 100,000 of the population. These states also had the highest numbers of opioid prescriptions written per 100 persons12. During my time as a pharmacy student in West Virginia, I witnessed first-hand the devastating effect of the epidemic on so many families and communities within the state. While the crisis has drawn the attention of many, including local, state and federal Government officials, a lot remains to be done to totally address the situation.
Besides the impact to the demographics described in section 4.1 above, the opioid crisis has inflicted significant financial costs on local, state and the Federal Government. These costs, primarily incurred by local communities, cities and states result from; lost productivity, medical care for opioid related overdoses and addiction, law enforcement services and community efforts related to opioid abuse, caring for children whose parents are incapacitated due to the opioid addiction, pediatric care for babies born with opioid related disorders and lastly, services including counselling and rehabilitation.10 The estimated annual cost to local, state and federal Governments is a staggering $79 billion. Of this amount, almost $30 billion is spent on healthcare and substance abuse treatment and over 15% of the total cost is funded by Medicare, Medicaid and other public health insurance programs10.
To better understand the present-day opioid epidemic, an understanding of the history of the crisis is paramount. The opioid crisis as we know it today emerged from a complex mix of efforts by various industries to balance abuse of prescription opioids with sufficient and critical treatment of pain. In the early 1920’s through the late 1950’s, a phenomenon known as “opiophobia” persisted. This was in part due to the Harrison Narcotic Control act passed in 1914 as a way to control the abrupt rise of opioid dependence and heroin abuse. The result was an avoidance of opioids by patients and physicians alike which ultimately resulted in severe undertreatment of pain.
During the latter part of the twentieth century, while this continuous avoidance of opioids and resulting under treatment of pain persisted, several academic articles were published that drew light to the matter. One of such articles, published in the Annals of Internal Medicine in 1973 claimed that therapeutic use of opioids seldom results in addiction. Publications of this kind, although very effective in convincing the public were grossly misleading as the studies lacked scientific rigor. Closely following this development, in 1986, the World Health Organization released a monograph to address the undertreatment of post-surgical and cancer related pain. This ushered in a period of scientific discourse which questioned the strict use of opioids for cancer pain. Certain oncologists, without expertise in non-cancer related pain, argued that opioids should be used for chronic pain alongside cancer related pain. Jones et al. states “ This dangerous conflation disregards the complex biopsychosocial phenomena that is chronic pain, and despite many cautions to this effect, opioids grew into the primary modality of chronic non cancer pain treatment in the USA” Following on, organizations such as the American Pain Society, the Veteran’s Health Administration, the Joint Commission, the Federal State of Medical Boards and the Drug Enforcement Agency either through statements or policies supported the ongoing push for proper evaluation of pain and consequently, increase in opioid prescribing. The pharmaceutical industry, seeing this new trend as an opportunity began aggressively marketing opioids, utilizing paid physicians to push their agenda. Purdue pharma, makers of Oxycontin were the main culprits in the opioid epidemic.
The company falsely claimed that Oxycontin had a lower chance of being abused, prompting physicians to increase the number of the medication prescribed. The impact of this marketing campaign was immediately seen. In the 20-year period from 1992 through 2012, the number of opioid prescriptions more than doubled from 112 million in 1992 to 282 million in 201211. These figures and the impending crisis caught the attention of law enforcement personnel, leading to a widespread arrest of physicians, pharmacists and other healthcare providers linked to improper dispensing of opioids11. Purdue pharma also got significant reprimands due to their role in the growing epidemic. In 2007, the company pled guilty to charges related to “misleading and defrauding physicians and customers”, paying over half a billion dollars in fines and penalties11. Today, while the nation still grapples with the crisis, a lot is being done by the Government at the local, state and federal levels, as well as by regulatory agencies, physician groups and pharmaceutical companies to curtail the number of opioids prescribed. Some of these actions are discussed in section 5.0 below.
Solutions to the Opioid Epidemic
As has been discussed throughout this paper, the opioid epidemic stems from a variety of causes which necessitates a multidisciplinary approach to solving the problem. While it is important to address the epidemic, it is essential that the proposed solutions do not eliminate the significant progress that has been made in the past to understand the pathophysiology of pain and provide options for its treatment.
Besides the commonly discussed remedies such as enhanced clinician education on prescribing practices, community collaboration and involvement, effective transition of care following patient treatment etc., this section will focus on the clear, well balanced and actionable recommendations of the American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) to curb the abuse of prescription opioids while maintaining sufficient access to pain treatment. These recommendations fall under two categories;
Public Education
Firstly, destigmatizing addiction will go a long way in helping solve the opioid epidemic. Addiction should be treated like a medical condition instead of being labelled as a crime or a lack of good judgement. If the public is properly educated, people suffering from addiction would be treated with care and compassion and the healthcare system could rally around them to provide the necessary resources to help them overcome the burden of the disease. Public education could also help increase public awareness and address the dangers of unlawful drug use. Many people who have been prescribed opioids for legitimate pain control have these opioids stolen by people close to them and sold for higher prices in the black market. Public education would make more people aware of the possibility of theft and diversion, helping to reduce the circulation of drugs on the street. A survey published by the New England Journal of Medicine demonstrates that the public believes that ongoing awareness programs are effective and should be continued.
Legislation
The American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians believes that specific legislation supporting enhanced access to non-opioid treatment options including non-opioid analgesics, physical therapy and interventional pain management techniques such as electrical stimulation, injection etc. could help address the opioid epidemic. This recommendation is backed by evidence published by Manchikanti et al. in the Pain Physician journal which demonstrates a correlation between an increase in opioid overdose deaths and a decline in the use of interventional techniques. This decline in the use of interventional techniques is as a result of decreased reimbursement and increased requests for prior authorization. This makes for a cumbersome process and discourages physicians from exploring interventional pain management techniques as potential treatment options for their patients. Until this problem is solved, the overdependence and underutilization of opioid based therapies and interventional techniques respectively will persist.
Overdose Treatment
Opioid addiction and dependence are treated in a variety of ways. These include discontinuation, support programs and pharmacotherapy to help alleviate withdrawal symptoms. One of the most popular medications for opioid dependence is buprenorphine, sold under the trade name Suboxone. While this medication has been found to be very effective in treating opioid addiction, access to the medication is extremely limited. According to the National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine treatment, under 4% of U.S. physicians meet the necessary requirements to prescribe this medication. Furthermore, those with the necessary credentials are allowed by law to treat no more than 30 patients after the first year they are certified. This limitation caused by the credentialing requirements and restriction on number of patients treated severely limits access to treatment, causing patients to seek other, less effective treatment options. To solve this problem, the ASIPP proposes legislation that eliminates these bottlenecks as a way to decrease opioid overdose deaths. As demonstrated in a study conducted in France by Auriacombe et al. and published in the American Journal of Addiction, less stringent access requirements for buprenorphine for opioid use disorder decreased overdose deaths by nearly 80% in 6 years.
References
- Krieger, Carrie. “What Are Opioids and Why Are They Dangerous?” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 21 Mar. 2018, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/prescription-drug-abuse/expert-answers/what-are-opioids/faq-20381270.
- “Opioid Treatment for Chronic Pain - When Seconds Count.” When Seconds Count | Anesthesia, Pain Management & Surgery, www.asahq.org/whensecondscount/pain-management/opioid-treatment/.
- Kosten, Thomas R, and Tony P George. “The Neurobiology of Opioid Dependence: Implications for Treatment.” Science & Practice Perspectives, National Institute on Drug Abuse, July 2002, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851054/.
- Trivedi, Mahesh, et al. PHARMACOLOGY OF OPIOIDS – PART 1 ANAESTHESIA ... - AAGBI. www.aagbi.org/sites/default/files/64-Pharmacology-of-Opioids-part-I.pdf.
- Bellum, Sara. “Real Teens Ask: What Are the Different Types of Opioids?” National Institute on Drug Abuse for Teens, teens.drugabuse.gov/blog/post/real-teens-ask-what-are-different-types-opioids-0.
- Public Affairs. “What Is the U.S. Opioid Epidemic?” HHS.gov, Https://Plus.google.com/ HHS, www.hhs.gov/opioids/about-the-epidemic/index.html.
- “Opioid Overdose.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 19 Dec. 2018, www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/epidemic/index.html.
- “Opioid Epidemic.” NACCHO, www.naccho.org/programs/community-health/injury-and-violence/opioid-epidemic.
- “Opioid Crisis.” Health Resources & Services Administration, 1 Mar. 2019, www.hrsa.gov/opioids.
- “The Opioid Crisis.” The Opioid Crisis, www.theopioidcrisis.com/the-impact.
- “Understanding the Opioid Epidemic | Opioid Abuse | Maryville University.” Maryville Online, 18 Feb. 2019, online.maryville.edu/blog/understanding-the-opioid-epidemic-opioid-abuse-in-america/.
- National Institute on Drug Abuse. “Opioid Summaries by State.” NIDA, 29 Mar. 2019, www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/opioids/opioid-summaries-by-state.
Cite this page
The Opioid Crisis: A Comprehensive Review. (2021, Mar 17).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
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Understanding the Opioid Epidemic
The Opioid epidemic has plagued America as a medical health crisis for the past thirty years. The crisis began in the early 1990s and has since occurred in three separate waves (Liu, Pei, & Soto, 2018). The first wave appeared in 1991 as doctors became unaware of how highly addictive the painkillers were that they were prescribing to their patients for pain management (Liu, Pei, & Soto, 2018). The second wave began in 2010 as many people began to die from heroin abuse (Liu, Pei, & Soto, 2018). These deaths were a direct result of those addicted to opioids no longer having access to painkillers and deciding to cure their fix with heroin (Liu, Pei, & Soto, 2018). The last wave of this epidemic occurred in 2013 when more and more people began to overdose on synthetic opioids such as fentanyl (Liu, Pei, & Soto, 2018). According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, more than 47,000 Americans have lost their lives in 2017 to prescription opioids, heroin, and synthetic opioids such as fentanyl (Opioid Overdose Crisis, 2019). Some of the most frequent drugs involved with opioid overdoses include methadone, oxycodone, and hydrocodone (Opioid Overdose, 2018). The opioid epidemic is not only a public health concern but also an economic issue for Americans. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention found that the United States spends roughly $78.5 billion a year for the costs of healthcare, addiction treatments, and the involvement of the criminal justice system in relation to opioid addictions (Opioid Overdose Crisis, 2019). There are 3 main factors that have contributed to the growth of the opioid epidemic. These factors include opioids being overly prescribed as a means of pain management, opioids being prescribed to those with mental health problems, and the increase in opioid addictions via rural areas due to lack of resources and education.
During the 1990s, healthcare patients started to become more and more agitated with their doctors as they did not feel their needs were being met in terms of pain management. These patients wanted a stronger course of treatment to reduce their chronic pain issues. Up until the early 1990s, most chronic pain was treated via cognitive behavioral therapy or even hypnosis (Dasgupta, Beletsky, &, Ciccarone, 2018). According to an Institute of Medicine report, the reason for this increase in chronic pain can be attributed to a variety of factors which include: greater patient expectations for pain relief, obesity, increased survivorship after injury and cancer, increased frequency and complexity of surgery, and musculoskeletal disorders of an aging population (Dasgupta, Beletsky, &, Ciccarone, 2018). Pharmaceutical companies saw these recent patient complaints as a way to increase their profits. These companies began to sell items such as OxyContin while downplaying the addiction potential some of these drugs had in store for their consumers (Dasgupta, Beletsky, &, Ciccarone, 2018). The market for these painkillers has continued to rise over the past 30 years. From 1997-2007, the purchases of oxycodone increased four times, the purchases of hydrocodone increased nine times, and the purchases of methadone increased thirteen times (Elkins, 2019). Also, between 1992 and 2000, the number of opioid abusers in this country rose by 225% (Lembke, 2012). Doctors and physicians account for 60% of the opioids that are abused in this country by indirectly or directly prescribing patients these painkillers (Lembke, 2012). Most of these doctors are even aware that their patients are abusing these drugs or selling/distributing the drugs to other individuals (Lembke, 2012). The fear of receiving bad reviews from patients, being known as not wanting to help treat chronic pain, and the ignorance towards addiction potentials for certain drugs has led doctors to overly prescribe opioids and assist in the growing opioid epidemic.
Another reason the opioid epidemic continues to rise in this country is because more and more doctors have begun prescribing opioids to patients with mental health issues as a means of treating their chronic pain conditions. In 2017, adults with mental illnesses accounted for more than 50 percent of the 115 million opioid prescriptions that are prescribed each year in America (Connor, 2017). People with mental illnesses have the highest susceptibility to developing an addiction to painkillers. Dr. Brian Sites, an anesthesiologist at Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, says, “Because patients with mental health disorders are a vulnerable population, they’re probably more likely to develop addiction and abuse” (Connor, 2017). Sites further claims in order to fix this problem, doctors should operate off of different criteria when it comes to prescribing opioids to patients with mental conditions such as anxiety, depression, bi-polar disorder, borderline personality disorder, etc. (Connor, 2017). Another doctor, Andrew Saxon, who is the director of Addiction Psychiatry Residency Program at the University of Washington states that the best way to treat patients with chronic pain who also manifest a mental condition is to subject them to cognitive behavioral therapy, physical therapy, or meditation techniques (Connor, 2017). A separate study done by Dr. Sites and various other colleagues observing the effects of opioids on patients with mental health conditions found that having a mental disorder while taking opioids does lead to an increase in opioid abuse (Davis, Lin, Liu, Sites, 2017). Their study also found that in some cases mental health patients who take opioids reported an increase in pain levels which led to them taking more painkillers than needed (Davis, Lin, Liu, Sites, 2017). In summary, doctors who prescribe opioids to patients with mental illness have unknowingly increased the rates of opioid abuse within this country as those with mental illness are more likely to battle addiction.
Lastly, the opioid epidemic has dramatically risen in the past decade as a result of more people in rural areas being granted access to large amounts of opioids. Pharmaceutical companies target pharmacies in rural areas due to the fact that people in rural areas are more likely to develop opioid addictions, thus, purchasing more painkillers. The reason for this is related to the educational opportunities people in rural areas have as well as not having access to drug-treatment programs. In terms of education, people in rural areas tend to be less-educated and do not obtain college degrees as there are less educational opportunities to be offered than bigger cities. Thus, most of their jobs include work settings that tend to increase their risk of being physically injured and developing chronic health conditions (Scommegna, 2018). Less-educated individuals are also more likely to resort to selling opioids due to their limited incomes which increases their connection to opioids and the chance of developing an addiction problem (Scommegna, 2018). As a result of their low-income jobs, people in rural areas are less likely to have access to any sort of drug-treatment counseling or other kinds of doctors that specialize in addiction. Pharmaceutical companies are aware of all these factors that inhibit rural communities and aim to have their drugs sold in pharmacies within those areas. For example, between 2008 and 2015, drug wholesalers sent more than 20.8 million prescription painkillers to two pharmacies in a small town of 3,000 residents in West Virginia (Wamsley, 2018). In 2016, West Virginia accumulated 884 deaths as a result of opioid abuse; the highest rate the country has ever seen (Wamsley, 2018). If pharmaceutical companies continue to target rural areas with the distribution of opioids, more deaths will accumulate in these small towns and the opioid crisis will progressively worsen.
Although the opioid epidemic is still very much alive and progressing, there are steps being taken to lessen the number of opioid related deaths that accumulate each year in America. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) is working to end the opioid epidemic by priorities that include improving access to treatment and recovery services, advancing better practices for pain management, providing support for research on pain and addiction, strengthening the understanding of the epidemic through better public health surveillance, and promoting the use of overdose-reversing drugs (Opioid Overdose Crisis, 2019). The Center for Disease Control and Prevention has also stated new guidelines for prescribing opioids as of March 2016 (Opioid Overdose, 2018). These guidelines were constructed so that patients are being given access to safer and more effective chronic pain treatments while also focusing on the rules for prescribing opioids to patients 18 years or older; not just cancer or hospice patients (Opioid Overdose, 2018). The CDC and HHS have both contributed their efforts to ending the opioid epidemic and lessening the amount of opioid related deaths that occur in America each and every day. With their efforts in mind, hopefully America will no longer one day acquire such a high number of deaths or bear the financial burden the opioid epidemic has caused the United States.
References
- Connor, V. (2017, June 27). Patients With Mental Disorders Get Half Of All Opioid Prescriptions. Retrieved from https://khn.org/news/patients-with-mental-disorders-get-half-of-all-opioid-prescriptions/
- Dasgupta, N., Beletsky, L., & Ciccarone, D. (2018). Opioid Crisis: No Easy Fix to Its Social and Economic Determinants. American Journal of Public Health, 108(2), 182-186. doi:10.2105/ajph.2017.304187
- Davis, M. A., Lin, L. A., Liu, H., & Sites, B. D. (2017, July 01). Prescription Opioid Use Among Adults with Mental Health Disorders in the United States. Retrieved from https://www.jabfm.org/content/30/4/407
- Elkins, C. (2019). Hooked on Pharmaceuticals: Prescription Drug Abuse in America. Retrieved from https://www.drugwatch.com/news/2015/07/29/drug-abuse-in-america/
- Lembke, A. (2012, October 25). Why Doctors Prescribe Opioids to Known Opioid Abusers | NEJM. Retrieved from https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1208498
- Liu, L., Pei, D., & Soto, P. (2018, February). History of the Opioid Epidemic How Did We Get Here? Retrieved from https://www.poison.org/articles/opioid-epidemic-history-and-prescribing-patterns-182
- National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2019, January 22). Opioid Overdose Crisis. Retrieved from https://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/opioids/opioid-overdose-crisis
- Opioid Overdose. (2018, December 19). Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/prescribing.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/overdose.html
- Scommegna, P. (2018, January 10). Opioid Overdose Epidemic Hits Hardest for The Least Educated. Retrieved from https://www.prb.org/people-and-places-hardest-hit-by-the-drug-overdose-epidemic/
- Wamsley, L. (2018, January 30). Drug Distributors Shipped 20.8 Million Painkillers To West Virginia Town Of 3,000. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/01/30/581930051/drug-distributors-shipped-20-8-million-painkillers-to-west-virginia-town-of-3-00
Cite this page
Understanding The Opioid Epidemic. (2021, Mar 17).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2021/03/page/18/
The Truth about our Cities
Civilization is the process by which a society or place reaches an advanced stage of social and cultural development along with the organization. When we speak about ancient civilizations, we refer to large groups of people not only living in the cities but having an organized form of government and a high level of culture, science industry and creative arts. However, many civilizations are different in various ways because the upbringing of each city includes a great process to make it unique from one another. Ancient civilizations had many obstacles throughout the beginning but overcame them by the different roles that people took a chance on.
The Neolithic Age was a time period of approximately 10,000 to 4,000 years ago, where people began to farm, raise animals and plant crops. Later on, these individuals learned how to make tools out of metal as well as learning how to build permanent homes. People in the Neolithic Age lived in the Fertile Crescent, East of the Mediterranean Sea, where the land was fertile so they could grow crops to eat and to trade. Building a stable civilization is something that takes time, however starting small is a great way to overcome a lot of problems when taking over a new beginning. Specific tribes began to realize that they were hunters and plant gatherers. They used higher advanced tools and implements, and most important of all, these people invented the bow and arrow. These hunters and gatherers were smart with their techniques at the beginning of this civilization era. Carla Greene published Man and Ancient Societies, in 1977 to talk about the early civilization and the life revolving around it. These “advanced civilizations for agriculture was the invention by these farmers in Europe of an early form of the plow.” (Greene, 5) Later, in 4500 B.C farming was beginning to advance itself.
These farmers either remained as farmers or began to gather into villages. These people formed groups to form a government which was a lot stronger than the earlier rule of the wandering tribes. This became the core of the first true civilization. Steadily the villages grew into towns and eventually into great cities. The establishment of a large community was important because with more people they got more work done, and life became more compatible which made the population increase. Greene also made a connection with architecture and literature through civilizations. She talks about Constantine, a Roman Emperor who was known for reorganizing the Roman Empire’s currency system to restructuring Rome’s armed forces. Constantine established the new Roman capital as the Christian city. He “had chosen well the location of the new city, for it became a highly successful trading center and brought great wealth to the Byzantines.” (Greene, 85) The importance of the way these cities developed through farming and architecture shows the strength a city has. These certain civilizations that have come together have a strong foundation and make good habits in their community.
An empire is an extensive group of states or countries under a single supreme authority, generally an emperor or empress. One of the most common empires is the Roman Empire, which is known to be the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization. This empire was ruled by emperors and had large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and the Caucasus. Thomas Harrison published his book, The Great Empires of the Ancient World in 2009 to talk mainly about the different time periods of our Ancient world, and how empires developed throughout time. In the Roman Empire, the Ancient Oasis city of Palmyra was originally founded near a fertile natural oasis. It was established sometime during the third millennium B.C. as the settlement of Tadmor, and it became a leading city of the Near East and a major trading post on the Silk Road. The “Oasis City accumulated enormous wealth by getting involved in the expanding long-distance trade”. (Harrison, 221) For a civilization or empire to function properly, it takes a great leader to keep things at ease. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, transformed a rapacious Republic into an empire. Harrison explains that “his sole rule marked a veritable watershed in Roman history and has duty been labeled the ‘Augustan Threshold’.” (201) Augustus was one of the greatest emperors of all time and he made sure his empire was arranged the way he wanted it to be.
Ancient Egypt is simply known as Kemet which means 'Black Land'. This is named for the rich, dark soil along the Nile River where the first settlements began. Later, the country was known as Misr which means 'country', a name still in use by Egyptians for their nation in the present day. It is easy to think of ancient Egypt as a land filled with tombs and temples built by a group of people obsessed with death and their gods, but the truth behind it all is to display the heritage of ancient Egypt. Steven Snape, the author of The Complete Cities of Ancient Egypt published his book in 2014 to explain the importance of life during ancient city development. Building the city was not an overnight project, it was very detailed and long-lasting. When establishing cities, mud and clay were ideal for these structures, however, “stone was the ideal material of choice when building houses for the gods (temples) and houses for the dead (tombs), the vast majority of structures erected in ancient Egypt would have had little, if any, of this material used within them.” (Snape, 31) For a successful civilization a large amount of work goes on for ancient Egypt to soon become a rising city. For example, sketching out the roles and duties of the court, temple and provincial officials is the backbone of the Egyptian administrations. They have Royal, Temple, and Provincial administrations all doing their part to make sure that Ancient Egypt in an indestructible civilization. Although the ideal civilization would have no problems, that is unreasonable. In Egypt, people in their village had problems with their food and water supply. The village could only survive with a large, well-organized and expensive support system. So when that support system failed in c. 1070 BC, the villagers did what any sensible person would do in this situation; pack their bags and leave. Aside from this problem, some food could be produced locally in and around the city itself. For example, “by river-fishing and small-scale market gardening” people could use this constant supply of food to feed the population daily.
The urban way of life versus the rural way is total opposites. What is the actual difference in ancient Egypt? Rural living is a typical rural settlement, which is a compact village surrounded by intensively cultivated fields. The villages range in population from 500 to more than 10,000. They are basically similar in physical appearance and design throughout the country, except for minor local variations in building materials, design, and decoration. The houses are one or two stories high and built of mud bricks plastered with mud and straw. In the southern parts of the valley, more stone is used and the houses are joined to one another in a continuous row. In a typical house, the windows consist of a few small round or square openings, so little light and air can enter. Comparing that to the urban lifestyle, Egyptian towns are considered to be urban centers, some of them are actually overgrown villages, containing large numbers of people engaged in work relating to agriculture and rural enterprises. Buildings in these towns and smaller cities are usually two-storied houses or apartment blocks of four to six stories. The better-looking ones are lime-washed, with flat roofs and numerous balconies.
A civilization emerged not as a fleeting moment of change, but as a slow process of urban growth. By increasing architecture, imagination, cooperation and abstract, human beings take the first step to become a developed community. Technology gives tools the main purpose of hunting and gathering to make sure cities get what they need. Emperors and rulers will be needed to maintain a strong foundation and embrace their culture. Civilizations are a huge factor in the creation of this world, and not only do they have an impact on us individually but as a society.
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Opioid Use in Adolescents Essay
Abstract
Over the past year, 3.6 percent of adolescents have misused opioids. Opioids are a class of drugs that interact with opioid receptors on nerve cells in the body and the brain. Opioids are used to treat pain, cough, and diarrhea. Opioids come in tablet forms and are usually distributed by doctors, these pills should be taken for a short period of time. Opioids are also known as, OxyContin, hydrocodone, codeine, fentanyl, and morphine. Opioids produce euphoria which helps with pain relief, and can cause addiction. Opioids are addictive and have become one of the most commonly misused drugs. Opioid misuse is the leading cause of the opioid epidemic. The opioid epidemic has caused many opioid overdose deaths and has created addiction. Every day 115 Americans die from an opioid overdose. Additionally, the use of opioids can cause bad grades, bad relationships with family and friends, and cause poor performances in sports. The purpose of this research is to present information about opioid use in adolescents. Fact based findings from several studies will show adverse effects on opioid misuse. This study is intended to educate those who are not aware of opioid use and misuse in adolescents.
Introduction
Opioids are a class of drugs that include heroin, fentanyl, and pain relievers. They are available legally by prescription such as Oxycodone (OxyContin), hydrocodone (Vicodin), codeine, morphine, and many others. Opioids have become a national crisis and 80 percent of deaths in the city of Philadelphia alone involve opioids. In 2019, there is still an opioid epidemic taking place in the city of Philadelphia. Many environmental factors are resulting in adolescent opioid addiction. These environmental factors include: playing sports, mainly football and wrestling, older peers, family members, and doctors. Adolescents simply have easy access to opioids and as a result opioids are being misused. Opioids are used to reduce pain, but instead it is being used for the wrong reasons, such as getting high. Also, this research will explore how environmental factors influence opioid use among adolescents. Thus, this paper will identify what can be done to prevent opioid use and what is the cause of opioid use.
Literature Review
Playing through pain: sports participation and nonmedical use of opioid medications among adolescents (2013) focuses on non-medical use of prescription opioids among adolescents who were involved in competitive sports. The article looked at both non-participants and participants of competitive sports. The authors main point was monitoring adolescents of non-medical prescription opioid use with high injuries while being involved in sports. In 2011, there were 15.2 percent of high school seniors using non-medical opioids such as Vicodin and OxyContin. Additionally, adolescents who play football and wrestling had a 50 percent increase in non-medical use to prescription opioids than peers who did not play those two sports. Notably, football players and wrestlers have the highest severe injury rate among high school athletes and it is easy to obtain opioids from a teammate who is giving their prescription opioid medication to peers. To summarize, adolescents health risk of using non-medical prescription opioids for injuries was detected. This article provides great information on higher opioid use in adolescents who play sports than those who do not participate in sports at all.
Another article called “Trajectories of non-medical use of prescription opioids among adolescents in primary care” (2013) discussed the rise of non-medical use of prescription opioids in adolescents. It looked at both risk factors and patterns of use over time of non-medical prescription opioid use in adolescents. The authors main goal was to examine adolescents’ that used non-medical prescription opioids that had more psychosocial risk factors and those who still misused prescription opioids. Non-medial prescription use was extremely high among street youth. There were 512 adolescents in a randomized controlled trial, and 88 percent were involved in non-medical prescription opioid use. One-third of adolescents reported engaging in non-medical prescription opioid use (NMPOU) before illegal drug use. Most street youth reported that illegal drugs led them to non-medical opioid use. This study did not include a sample based on random recruitment methods. To conclude, findings suggest that adolescents that use illegal drugs are more likely to use NMPOU earlier on than those who do not. The article provides plenty of results and background information on non-medical prescription opioid use with adolescents.
Methods
Opioid use in adolescents is happening all over the United States, not just in the city of Philadelphia. Before it was known that medications were highly addictive, the increased prescription of opioid medication led to misuse of both prescription and non-prescription opioids. There has been over 130 plus deaths every day from opioid overdoses. Opioid overdoses have accounted for more than 42,000 deaths in 2016, which is more than any previous year. There is an estimated 40 percent of opioid overdose deaths that are involved with prescription opioids (HHS.GOV/OPIOIDS, 2019). Studies show that non-medical use of opioids are used a lot by adolescents. Majority of adolescents that indicated non-medical opioid use had a history of medical use of prescription opioids. Adolescents that reported both medical use of prescription opioids and non-medical opioid use were medical users before non-medical opioid use became most prevalent. This pattern may be driven by the one-third of adolescents who report non-medical opioid use that involves leftover opioid medications from their own previous prescriptions (McCabe, 2017).
Adolescents have an increased risk of opioid misuse. They are most commonly used for, acute and chronic pain, physical health problems, mental health illness, or other substance use or misuse. Nearly half of adolescents from the ages of 12 to 17 have reported misusing opioids because they were given or bought them from a friend or a relative. Youth who have witnessed a family member overdose or who have a large number of friends who misuse prescription drugs are at an increased risk (McCabe, 2017). Studies show that adolescents committed to doing well in school and know about the dangers of pain relivers have a lower risk of substance use. In addition, adolescents that have a strong bond with their parents have a lower risk of misuse of opioids.
Link to Leadership/Administration
Opioids have relevance in health care administration and the food and drug administration. Health care administration is making sure hospitals, home care agencies, and group practices run accordingly. Also, health care administration is making sure that people have insurance, keeping medical records up to date, and making sure each employer does their job. The reason for this is to reduce unnecessary opioid prescriptions and make sure they are not being distributed to the wrong patient. Opioid use in adolescents is relevant in health care administration because opioids are given in hospitals and also, doctors prescribe opioids for pain. Furthermore, the food and drug administration is also relevant with opioid use in adolescents. The FDA approved a new opioid painkiller in November of 2018 that is 10 times stronger than fentanyl (Partnership for Drug-Free Kids, 2018). The drug is called Dsuvia, and it is more potent than morphine. This drug is in care settings such as hospitals, emergency rooms, and surgery centers.
However, there are solutions; leadership is motivating people to act towards achieving a goal. There are many different styles of leadership. One particular leadership style that has relevance in opioid use in adolescents is situational leadership. Situational leadership is a leadership style in which someone must adjust their style to fit the development level they are trying to influence (Al-Sawai, 2013). Adolescents who are using opioids should have better influencers in their corner. Situational leadership can give adolescents better options for a better lifestyle. As a situational leader, you must adjust to the lifestyle of adolescents using opioids and the trials and tribulations that they go through. Situational leadership is influencing adolescents to do better, be better, and not to be (hooked on) opioids. Trying to get adolescents to stop using opioids will be a step by step process.
A communication style to prevent and or address opioid use in adolescents would be oral communication. Oral communication is being able to express information or ideas by word or mouth. Oral communication can be face-to-face conversations, telephone conversations, meetings, and presentations (Taran, 2011). Oral communication would work best when talking to adolescents who are addicted to opioids. Face-to-face conversations are very necessary because interacting with a person, being able to see their facial expressions, and how they are doing is important when having a conversation about a serious matter. Oral communication could prevent opioid use in adolescents by sitting down and talking to them and having meetings about why opioids are not good. Meetings and face-to-face sit downs will show how serious the person is about helping adolescents with their opioid addiction.
Opioid use in adolescents is rarely talked about but it is a huge issue. Solutions to this issue would be getting adolescents more involved in after school programs, such as non-contact sports or clubs. Adolescents who are involved in extracurricular activities have less of a chance to become involved with drugs. Most of opioid use in adolescents starts at home or with peers. Social context and perspectives of non-medical prescription opioid use among young adults in Rhode Island stated, that there is easy access to prescription opioids for non-medical use. Adolescents also, stated that it was easy to get a hold of prescription opioids through family and friends (Clark et al., 2016). Adolescents should not have to depend on opioids to live their lives. On top of that, support groups should be held because this would help a lot with adolescents who are addicted to opioids. Support groups help with recovery by surrounding adolescents with people who have a common purpose.
Treating pain cautiously is another solution to help prevent opioid misuse in adolescents. Adolescents are often exposed to opioids through prescriptions. Dentist prescriptions account for 31 percent of adolescents first exposure to opioids (McCabe, 2017). Treatment options should be turned to before prescribing opioids for acute and chronic pain in adolescents. Adults that care can even make sure that adolescents who are dealing with opioid misuse get the proper help that they need. The teenage brain is still growing and they are vulnerable to addiction. Since adolescents are vulnerable to addiction, adults should help prevent opioid misuse in adolescents by being there for them and helping as much as they can. Strong relationships should be built with adolescents to talk to them about opioid misuse and drug prevention.
Conclusion
To conclude, opioid misuse is serious, especially among adolescents. Opioid addiction occurs when the body feels a strong need for opioids. Opioid use in adolescents often starts from either a peer or relative. Opioid misuse is very common among adolescents and can cause addiction. When opioids are taken as prescribed they can be safe and reduce pain. When opioids are misused they can lead to harmful effects such as slow breathing and deadly overdoses. Environmental factors play a huge role in opioid addiction in adolescents. Adolescents should be more involved in extracurricular activities to avoid opioid addiction. Despite the negative consequences, people will continue to use opioids because of the urge they have for the drug.
References
- Blow, Fredric C., Bonar, Erin E., Lin, Lewei A., Walton, Maureen A. (2016).
- Trajectories of nonmedical use of prescription opioids among adolescents in primary care. Addiction Research and Theory, 24(6), 514-520. DOI: 10.1080/16066359.2016.1178244.
- Boyd, Carol, McCabe, Sean E., Veliz, Phillip T. (2013). Playing through pain: sports participation and nonmedical use of opioid medications among adolescents. American Jouranl od Public Health, 103(5), 28-30. DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2013.301242.
- McCabe, S. E., West, B. T., Veliz, P., McCabe, V. V., Stoddard, S. A., & Boyd, C. J. (2017, April 01). Trends in Medical and Nonmedical Use of Prescription Opioids Among US Adolescents: 1976–2015. Retrieved from https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/139/4/e20162387
- Office of Adolescent Health. (2017, November 29). Opioids and Adolescents. Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-development/substance-use/drugs/opioids/index.html
- Partnership News Service. (n.d.). Newly Approved Opioid 10 Times Stronger Than Fentanyl – Partnership News Service from the Partnership for Drug-Free Kids. Retrieved from https://drugfree.org/learn/drug-and-alcohol-news/newly-approved-opioid-10-times-stronger-than-fentanyl/
- Public Affairs. (n.d.). What is the U.S. Opioid Epidemic? Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/opioids/about-the-epidemic/index.html
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The Industrial Revolution Really Began in the Late Seventeen Hundreds
The topic I have chosen to expand my knowledge on is the Industrial Revolution. To me, the Industrial Revolution was a turning point in human history. It brought forth new growth and prosperity to the human race, but it also introduced new instruments of war. Throughout history, humans always take new tools, items, and techniques and improve them. This process will continue forever. The Industrial Revolution, however, was a major leap forward in many industries. The Industrial Revolution’s influence can still be seen in many structures and machines today.
The Industrial Revolution really began in the late seventeen hundreds and carried into the eighteen hundreds. The Industrial Revolution eventually influenced many countries’ economies as they needed to compete with other nations. According to Duiker, the first countries to be involved in the Industrial Revolution were Belgium, France, and German states, all of these countries’ government greatly supported the industrialization by creating schools to train engineers and mechanics, as well as funding construction projects (19-1b). This movement quickly became global and eventually made its way to the continental United States.
Since the United States was still a young country, not even a century old, the Industrial Revolution was a major occurrence. Before the Industrial Revolution, most Americans citizens were farmers who lived off the food grown on their farm and any profits were made from selling crops to the local market. The Industrial Revolution changed this. Duiker states that, in eighteen hundred, about six out of seven Americans were farmers and in eighteen sixty, only about fifty percent of the population of the United States consisted of farmers (19-1b). While the Industrial Revolution did have positive impacts, it also, however, had some negative effects.
Although there were many breakthroughs during the Industrial Revolution, such as the lightbulb and advances in medicines, many people still could not have access to these items. For example, the wealthy could afford medicines but the working class could not. This showed in a study that showed that there was a considerable drop in life expectancy in the working class while the upper classes’ life expectancies rose. According to Rocteur, Neal, and Jacquemin, it took a long time for scientists to link the drop in life expectancy to poor sanitary conditions in the workplace, Rocteur, Neal and Jacquemin also state that the improved medical techniques born from the Industrial Revolution helped to identify this issue (19). People also have a tendency to use great things such as the Industrial Revolution for war. Armaments were improve and could now be made more quickly due to more individuals working in factories. Wars such as the American Civil War and WWI are examples of this.
Some of the products of the Industrial Revolution are still vital parts of the world today. An excellent example would be electricity. Duiker mentions that electricity could produce heat, energy, and light and only needed a wire for transmission (19-2a). Today, electricity can be found anywhere in the world. Another major change was the movement from iron to steel. Steel is lighter, more malleable, and more durable. It was used to build structures and vehicles and still is today. The third creation of the time was the combustion engine. This creation was a substantial leap in all forms of industry. It allowed the rise of better boats, helped the growth of the automotive industry, and even allowed the creation of airplanes.
The Industrial Revolution is definitely one of the most important events in human history. Without these discoveries and inventions, the world would be very different. As mentioned in the previous paragraph, many of the creations of that time are still in production today and are constantly being improved upon. Electricity is used in cellphones, combustion engines were used to put a man on the moon, and steel is still used to construct skyscrapers. The Industrial Revolution’s influence will forever carry on in the modern world.
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Opioid Overdose Deaths
“Overdose deaths involving opioids have increased sixfold since 1999. In 2017, the most recent year for which data is available, opioid overdoses killed more than forty-seven thousand people, or more than six times the number of U.S. military service members killed in the post-9/11 wars in Iraq and Afghanistan” (Felter). This shocking statistic relays only part of the crisis threatening the US: The Opioid Epidemic. Since the early 2000s, the US has been sinking further into one of the worst drug crises in our history, and more people now are dying than ever. Opioids are class of drugs that affect the areas of the brain that control relaxation, pleasure, and pain relief. Though they can be used to treat problems like chronic pain, they are highly addictive and very difficult to stop using. They also can quickly become deadly due to their ability to cause overdoses. America and its leaders must find a way to quickly reduce the growing number of opioid addiction victims in order to stop this growing trend.
The seeds of the opioid crisis were planted in the early 90s, with a rise in addiction cases involving prescription opioids. During this era, the idea of using opioids to treat chronic pain and other related illnesses was very popular among medical professionals, pharmaceutical companies, and the American public alike. Doctors hoped to achieve this by prescribing newly developed opioids to patients, promising that they were completely non-addictive and would provide long term relief. The most prevailing of these drugs is Oxycontin, produced by the company Purdue Pharma. Many people blame the opioid crisis on mainstream pharmacy companies like Purdue pharma for marketing their products as non-addictive, without ever providing reasonable proof of this. These companies “reassured the medical community that patients would not become addicted to opioid pain relievers and healthcare providers began to prescribe them at greater rates” (Public Affairs). However, as we now know, these drugs turned out to be very addictive. Many believe that the opioid crisis would not have had such a great effect if these companies had chosen to report how addictive they were so that medical professionals could have provided necessary precautions.
The effect of this overprescription has been devastating. One effect is obviously that more and more Americans are still becoming addicted to the pain killers that they were prescribed. These addiction victims are what really makes this epidemic different than those in the past. In the public opinion, many believe that addicts are just people who have made poor life choices and that is why they are dependant on drugs. There is a layer of judgement and stigma that comes with addiction, and this is one of the many reasons why it is difficult for addicts to get help. However, this is where the modern opioid crisis is different than those epidemics that have come before it. The people who became addicted to prescription drugs in the first place really did nothing wrong. They just followed their doctor's instructions, and they still became addicted without even knowing it. These addiction victims are not from the traditionally poor, minority demographic that is stereotyped as being the most likely to abuse drugs. Anyone can become addicted to opioids, and this is one reason why the crisis has gathered so much national attention. In a 2014 study by The JAMA Psychiatry Network, it was found that the average opioid users today are equally male and female, and can be found in urban, rural, or suburban areas (Cicero). In term of locations affected by of the opioid crisis, “(The opioid epidemic) is not confined to a small number of states nor to lower-income areas, but instead has spread across the whole country” (Kommenda). The fact that this crisis affects everyone, regardless of race, gender, or socioeconomic status, is one of the reasons that the opioid epidemic is so deadly and must be controlled quickly.
However, the effects of this epidemic didn’t stop with prescription opioid abuse. It actually created a far more serious problem when people started turning to illegal opioids like heroin and later fentanyl when they either were cut off from or were not getting enough of a high from their prescription opioids.They are easy enough to interchange, as “Both heroin and prescription opioid pain relievers belong to the opioid class of drugs, and both of their euphoric effects are produced by their binding with mu opioid receptors in the brain”(National Institute on Drug Abuse). So many people began turning to these illegal alternatives that it became an even bigger problem than the first wave of opioid abuse in the late 90s and early 2000s. The second wave started around 2010 with a sharp increase in deaths related to heroin abuse. “Deaths due to heroin related overdose increased by 286% from 2002 to 2013, and approximately 80% of heroin users admitted to misusing prescription opioids before turning to heroin”(Liu). Because of the growing number of heroin abusers, the US not only has to deal with the medical problems of addiction, but also with complications that come with illegal opioid use. But the problems that resulted from the initial crisis are far from over. As more illegal opioids are developed and distributed, more people are using and becoming addicted to them. The most deadly and recent of these are synthetic opioids like Fentanyl, which have effectively started a third wave of the opioid crisis. This is the most deadly of all three crises so far, with “The sharpest rise in drug-related deaths occurring in 2016 with over 20,000 deaths from fentanyl and related drugs” (Liu) -
The opioid crisis has not only had effects on addiction and overdose rates. It has actually added to the once again rising rates of blood borne diseases like HIV and Hepatitis C in America. Many addicts have to resort to sharing needles with strangers in order to inject illegal opioids like heroin and fentanyl, which can easily lead to the spread of many bloodborne diseases. A recent example of this comes from Scott County, Indiana, where “on March 27, 2015, then-Indiana Governor Mike Pence declared a state of emergency after public health officials there confirmed a total of 81 new cases of HIV among injecting drug users…By early April, the number of confirmed cases had risen to 190” (Myhere). If we do nothing to stop this opioid crisis, it will lead to even greater consequences like new epidemics and higher death tolls, even if they are not through overdoses. Another problem that can be connected to the opioid crisis is the rise in instances of neonatal abstinence syndrome. In which an infant is born already addicted to a drug because the mother used it while she was pregnant. This causes the baby to then go through terrible withdrawals and greatly increases their chance of neonatal death. According to the Council on Foreign Relations, “Incidences of neonatal abstinence syndrome almost quadrupled from 2000 to 2012”(Felter). Because of the rising rate of opioid addicts in the US, we are not only harming our current generation, but also future generations that are born already addicted to these drugs. If we would be able to control the situation now, we could stop this from happening.
There are many possible solutions to the opioid crisis, and it is difficult to see which might actually work. With so many different parts of the opioid crisis, a solution to one problem will not completely solve the full crisis.
One possible solution is presented by Neuroscientist Rachel Wurzman in her TED Talk, “How Isolation Fuels Opioid Addiction”. In her presentation, she suggests that opioid receptors in the brain can control both a person’s longing for social connection along with other pleasure-reward systems, like food, technology, or drugs like opioids. So according to her theory, “If we don't have the ability to connect socially, we are so ravenous for our social neurochemistry to be rebalanced, we're likely to seek relief from anywhere. And if that anywhere is opioid painkillers or heroin, it is going to be a heat-seeking missile for our social reward system” (Wurzman). In her TED talk, she suggests that using this theory as a basis for a solution to the opioid crisis could be the key to solving it. She claims, “I believe that the solution to the opioid crisis is to explore how social and psychospiritual interventions can act as neurotechnologies in circuits that process social and drug-induced rewards”(Wurzman). So if we were to integrate more programs based on different reward systems that could be used as a substitute for opioids, like social interaction or other social recovery groups, then perhaps this would allow more recovering addicts to stay in the programs and make a full recovery. However, I would argue that this is not the best solution to the opioid crisis because as a concept, it is far too broad. This idea of substituting one pleasure reward system in for another, while sounding good in theory, seems to not be very reasonable and not a complete solution to the problem. And that is the main problem with this proposed solution: It is far too abstract to be able to put into any use right now. These ideas could be tested over several subject groups and then see if they have any practical application, but we are desperately in need of a solution that we know will work now, in order to stop the crisis from getting worse. So while this solution might be valid in a few years after more testing and trials, it is not the best solution for the current problem.
Another potential solution that has been tested and put into place in other countries in order to control their own opioid crises are government funded heroin clinics. These programs supply qualifying addicts with a regular supply of medical heroin or other drugs, free of charge to the addict. The idea behind this is that if addicts are given a supervised and decreasing supply of medical heroin, than many problems can be avoided, like the dangers of impure street heroin and the crimes that can come with obtaining illegal drugs. The first of these programs in Europe was put into place in Switzerland. According to an article by Time Magazine about the program, “Today, there are 23 clinics across the country that treat roughly 2,200 drug users, or about 6% of the nation's heroin addicts. The average stay is three years — a quick stint for users who average 15 years of heroin use. Less than 15% relapse into daily use”(Faure). This statistic is far higher than other addiction recovery programs, where many addicts relapse quickly after leaving the program. However, this program is less than perfect. By the very nature of the clinics, addicts are not being offered detoxification from the drugs, they are just having their addiction maintained. Also some argue that it should not be up to taxpayers to pay for an addicts heroin, which can cost up to $14,000 per year per person. Another problem with this program is that it can treat only the most severe of addicts, so it is not having a huge impact on the crisis as a whole. Ultimately, this program, while noble in its idea, is not a realistic solution for the american opioid crisis. It would be very hard to pass this sort of program though an American congress, and even if it was passes, there would be far too many other problems for this solution to be practical.
While there is no perfect solution to the opioid crisis, the best way to slow and hopefully end the opioid crisis is a combination of three different proposals: preventative measures, containment programs to help the currently addicted, and treatment clinics that have more of a focus on mental health.
The first of these solutions would have to be preventative measures. We can try to solve the current opioid crisis by treating everyone who gets addicted, but we won’t actually stop it unless we get to the root cause. In this case, the way to do this would be to further regulate doctors ability to prescribe long term doses of opioid medications. While opioids can be helpful in pain management, it is not helpful for patients to be prescribed 30 days worth of opioids after a surgery when they really only need 4-5 days worth of them. According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, the high number of people who became addicted to and abuse the medical opioids they are prescribed suggests that “physicians and other medical practitioners may consider talking with their patients or clients about the potential health consequences of misusing their prescriptions, not sharing their prescription medications, preventing others from accessing their medications, and disposing of remaining dosage units. (Lipari). If more regulations and guidance can be given to doctors and health professionals, then it will be much harder for more people to become addicted in the first place, therefore stopping the opioid crisis at its roots. However, the downside to this part of the solution is that the more doctors try to restrict prescription opioids for those who are addicted, the more people who will turn to more dangerous alternatives like street drugs. So with this part of the solution, there also needs to be immediate recovery programs for people who are at risk for prescription opioid addiction, especially when they recently have had their dosages restricted or ended. By encorporting systems like this into the healthcare system along with regulations for opiate restrictions, we can stop more people from becoming needlessly addicted to the opioids they have been given by their doctors.
The second part of the best solution to the opioid crisis is a further instatement of harm reduction solutions. While long term solutions like the one mentioned above will be the best option to completely end the opioid crisis, they will only help the next generation, leaving all of those currently addicted without help. So the best option is a combination of both preventative and harm reduction policies that will be the most help both to current addicts and in stopping the crisis in the future. One of these policies would be the implementation of further needle exchange programs Through these programs, addicts can trade out dirty used needles for clean needles. This can prevent the spread of bloodborne diseases like Hepatitis C and HIV, which can spread very quickly through communities with addiction problems. Another positive that can come from these programs is that less needles will be left out on the streets. Areas with lots of addiction are known for having streets with lots of needles just laying around. This in itself can cause a separate health crisis and overall is very unsanitary for the community. However, it is easy to see that these programs aren’t perfect. Critics of this solution say that needle exchange clinics aren’t actually helping any addicts, they are just supplying them with a way to inject more drugs. However, it can be seen that many of these addicts are going to keep using drugs unless they have access to recovery programs, so it is important make sure they are doing it as safely as possible, and doing as little harm to themselves and the community as possible.
A second harm reduction strategy that is gaining popularity is the idea to provide easier accessibility to overdose-reversal drugs. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, “Three medications are currently FDA-approved to treat opioid addiction, one medication (lofexidine) has just been approved to treat physical symptoms of opioid withdrawal, and naloxone is available in both injectable and intranasal formulations to reverse overdose”(NIDA). Drugs like Naloxone can help to prevent deaths from overdoses, thus saving countless lives. However, these medications are not nearly as available as they should be. “Only a fraction of people with (Opioid Use Disorders) receive any treatment, and of those, less than half receive the medications that are universally acknowledged to be the standard of care, or they only receive medications for too short a duration”(NIDA). If we could provide greater access to these medications, so many people could live past an overdose and go on to a full recovery. Some people have presented the idea of placing government provided Naloxone stations around public buildings in areas with known drug problems, similar to AED machines. This would allow for quick responses to overdoses before ambulances can even arrive at the scene. If this opinion is not the most reasonable, then another more likely scenario would involve simply allowing insurance companies to provide further access to these life saving drugs in hospitals for a lower cost than is currently presented. By offering this as a more viable option for addicts and recovering addicts, countless overdose victims’ lives may be saved.
A final piece of the solution to the opioid crisis is providing further access and funding for addiction recovery programs. In 2017 under President Trump, the Department of Health and Human Services released a 5 point strategy for ending the opioid crisis, including “Improving access to treatment and recovery services”(Public Affairs). In 2017, The HHS allotted $485 in grants for each state to pay for prevention and treatment programs. Addiction recovery programs can be the most influential part of an addict's journey to sobriety, and through further funding to these programs, they can become available to so many more low income people who are struggling with opioid addiction.
However, we won’t be able to accomplish any of these changes if the American public continues to held addiction victims in contempt. While many people understand that addiction is a disease and that there is a point where an addicts might not even be in full control of their actions anymore, many still blame addiction on the addict and feel no need to help them. Through this logic, a layer of stigma is placed on the opioid and other drug crises, seemingly separating them from other epidemics over the years. Luke J. Nasta, the executive director at a large drug treatment facility on Staten Island, New York, compares the government’s slow response to an earlier failure to face the AIDS epidemic, saying “There was a stigma about being gay. There is also a stigma about being addicted to drugs. The entire society is suffering and the government can’t seem to get their arms around this epidemic. (Higham)” If we can’t get the public to help face this epidemic then none of these possible solutions will work. We need to receive full support of important government officials and the voters in order to create real change.
Works Cited
- Cicero TJ, Ellis MS, Surratt HL, Kurtz SP. The changing face of heroin use in the United States: a retrospective analysis of the past 50 years. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71(7):821-826
- Faure, Gaëlle. “Why Doctors Are Giving Heroin to Heroin Addicts.” Time, Time Inc. 8 Sept. 2009, content.time.com/time/health/article/0,859,1926160,00.html.
- Felter, Claire. “The U.S. Opioid Epidemic.” Council on Foreign Relations, Council on Foreign Relations, 17 Jan. 2019, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-opioid-epidemic.
- Higham, Scott, et al. “Obama Officials Failed to Focus as Fentanyl Burned Its Way across America.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 13 Mar. 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/national/fentanyl-epidemic-obama-administration/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.00dccc437eb7.
- Kommenda, Niko, et al. “Why Are More Americans than Ever Dying from Drug Overdoses?” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 29 Nov. 2018, 7:32, www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2018/nov/29/usdrug-overdose-epidemic-opioids-crisis-getting-worse.
- Lipari, Rachel N, et al. “WHY DO ADULTS MISUSE PRESCRIPTION DRUGS?” Stages of Community Readiness | SAMHSA, 2015, www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/defaul t/files/report _3210/ShortReport-3210.html.
- Liu, Lindsy, et al. “History of the Opioid Epidemic: How Did We Get Here?” National Capital Poison Center, 12 Feb. 2018, www.poison.org/articles/opioid-epidemic-history-and-prescribing-patterns-182.
- Myhre, James, and Dennis Sifris. “How the Opioid Crisis Is Driving HIV Rates in the U.S.” Very Well Health, Verywellhealth, 29 Aug. 2018, www.verywellhealth.com/when-injecting-drug-use-drives-hiv-rates- 48710.
- National Institute on Drug Abuse. “Prescription Opioid Use Is a Risk Factor for Heroin Use.” NIDA, Jan. 2018,www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-report s/relationship-between-prescription-drug- heroin-abuse/prescription-opioid-use-risk-factor-heroin-use.
- National Institute on Drug Abuse. “Prescription Opioid Use Is a Risk Factor for Heroin Use.” NIDA, Jan. 2018,www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-report s/relationship-between-prescription-drug- heroin-abuse/prescription-opioid-use-risk-factor-heroin-use.
- NIDA. ""An Ambitious Research Plan to Help Solve the Opioid Crisis."" National Institute on Drug Abuse, 12 Jun. 2018, https://www.drugabuse.gov/about-nida/noras-blog/2018/06/ambitious-research-plan-to-help-solve-opioid-crisis. Accessed 26 Apr. 2019.
- Public Affairs. “What Is the U.S. Opioid Epidemic?” HHS.gov, Https://Plus.google.com/+HHS, 22 Jan. 2019, www.hhs.gov/opioids/about-the-epidemic/index.html.
- Wurzman, Rachel. “‘How Isolation Fuels Opioid Addiction.’” Ted, Ted, Oct. 2017, www.ted.com/talks/rachel_wurzman_how_isolation_fuels_opioid_addiction/transcript#t-1099720
Cite this page
Opioid Overdose Deaths. (2021, Mar 17).
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Bureaucratic Injection: Government in Hoosier Medicine
Opioids on Campuses
College is where to specialize your skillset to compete in this globalized market. Unfortunately, the reputations of United States colleges are being disturbed by the opioid crisis. Young adults are more likely to overdose now than in any recorded time. This graph shows the number of opioid-related overdose deaths in Indiana from 1999-2016. In 2016, there were 794 opioid-related overdose deaths: 304 involved synthetic opioids, 297 involved heroin, and 262 involved prescription opioids. Categories are not mutually exclusive because deaths may involve more than one drug.] In 2017, Indiana ranked thirteenth state for drug overdose death rate and its neighboring states: West Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky, were ranked first to fourth respectively in the same list (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, para 2). According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), the Midwestern region saw a 70% incline in overdoses from July 2016 through September 2017 (2018, para 3). To combat the crisis, Hoosiers and institutions need to be informed to make better decisions and become part of the solution. My research is to motivate Indiana’s state government to inform its Hoosiers of the patient’s three R’s, alternative pain treatments, and institution of grants for combating the crisis.
The Jewels in the Crown
Opioid addiction has always existed. The 1990’s is where occurred the real footwork. Pharmaceutical companies were putting more opioids in their painkillers for a quicker, more potent, and longer-lasting effect (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2019, para 2). They had convinced physicians in chronic pain management that their patients would not become addicted to their new formula. The subsequent boom in prescriptions was the boom in patients wanting more of what their doctors were promised they would not become addicted. In an interview, registered nurse Kenneth G. Stavitzke, stated that medically incompetent people in charge of chronic pain management.
The problem also stems from the people suffering chronic pain. The path of least resistance is what most people prefer. Prescribed opioids come as easy-to-swallow pills that have quick results, and do not requiring long-term commitment. It is why exercise and physical therapy are underutilized and regarded with derision.
Being a college student today has its problems. Balancing assignments, extracurriculars, internships, and having a job will certainly create anxiety and headaches. “Unique invulnerability” is when an individual thinks they will succeed where others have failed. This is prevalent in young adults which is why they tend to experiment with substances, not thinking they will become addicted junkies.
Not Prescribing the Last Resort
To begin, Indiana state government needs to inform Hoosiers of clinically-proven alternatives to opioids. It needs to pass legislation that requires doctors to recommend physical therapies first before prescribing opioids. Doctors get cash from the pharmaceutical company they prescribe medicine from (Ornstein et al. para 1). The American Academy of Family Physicians deems acupuncture as relatively cheaper than prescription opioids and is less likely to become addicted to (2019, para. 13). A once-in-a-week appointment may be a lot more time-consuming than swallowing pills every morning. However, alternatives like exercise programs, acupuncture, deep-muscle massage and hot tubs could make one look forward to something and meet new people. A study concluded that people are indeed happier spending money on experiences than objects. Indiana should sponsor these alternatives with tax deductibles and subsidies.
Indiana should pass legislation requiring patients watch an informercial from the Allied Against Opioid Abuse (AAOA). Their mission is to educate the nation, bring about awareness help prevent the abuse and misuse of opioid prescriptions. This act will be force people who still choose to take prescription opioids and to ensure they know the three R’s. First to be known is you rights as a patient. You have the right to ask your doctor how your prescription is being filled and if it is “weak” or “strong” (AAFP, 2019, para 2). The American Academy of Family Physicians split opioids as “weak” opioids such as tramadol, codeine, and pentazocine are easier to find than “strong” opioids like morphine, oxycodone and fentanyl (2019, para 2). The next thing to make sure the patients know of are the risks of dependence, addiction, overdose from prolonged use without planning to transition to a better alternative. Finally, their responsibility of taking opioids by storing their prescription opioids in a secure place and then safely disposing of any used medication. (AAOA, 2019, para 5).
Grants
Finally, Indiana needs to better inform its institutions of grants against the opioid crisis. President Trump’s administration has been taking great strides against the opioid crisis (White House, 2019, para 1). Indiana’s state government needs to follow suit and continue offering grants to colleges that are showing efforts in opioid counseling and education. In 2018, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services (SAMHSA) offered $930 million for states that combatted the opioid crisis (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, para. 1) President Trump has garnered $1.5 billion for state opioid response grants as part of the State Opioid Response campaign. The administration is informing citizens of the dangers of opioid misuse and is working to curb over-prescription.
The reason why institutions will not pursue opioid-crisis grants is because of their reputation. For example, if Purdue Northwest received a grant for opening a counseling clinic, then the publics will conclude that there is an opioid problem on the campus. Hesitant parents will not let their children apply to their institution and the school will go under. Less students will pay for dorms because college students have been found overdosed in their dorms where they are privately alone to get high.
According to Christopher Freedman, community recovery supervisor at the College of New Jersey, “college were able to sweep it under the carpet better” (Field, 2018, para. 8). It’s no surprise that fraternities, alcohol is used to lighten the mood for parities and marijuana does less damage than alcohol and students are only drug checked if they wish to join an extracurricular like sports. Also, denial is common among college that there is a drug problem. According to registered nurse, Kenneth Stavitzke, drug addicts deny having a problem which is a common trait for people who do not want to be in the spotlight of an intervention.
President Donald Trump endorsed the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services’ five-pronged Opioid Strategy. HHS has invested over $4 billion in opioid specific funding to support treatment and recovery services, availability of overdose-reversing drugs, train first responders. (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2018, para 5) Trump’s administration partnerships with the truth initiative and ad council, “58% of young americans and 1.4 billion viewers have seen ads highlighting dangers of opioids. (White House, 2018, para 3). Indiana needs to take advantage and gets some grants headed our way. Indiana could claw back the money the opioid crisis has costed in rehabilitation, hospitalization, prison for crimes to steal opioids, and foster care for children with parents of addiction.
The problem with the opioid epidemic towards college campuses are, according to Christopher Freedman, community recovery supervisor at the College of New Jersey, “Before opioids, college were able to sweep it under the carpet better.” It’s no surprise that fraternities, alcohol is used to lighten the mood for parities and marijuana does less damage than alcohol and students are only drug checked if they wish to join an extracurricular like sports.
Conclusion
To conclude, Indiana’s state government needs to better inform Hoosiers and institutions of becoming the solution. The government cannot rely on the citizens to inform themselves to make ration decisions. It is similar to the problem of uninformed voters having power over who gets elected. The medical field does not care. They just care about money. By preventing opioids from falling in the wrong hands, the crime to get the money to get more opioids will go down. Registered nurse, Kenneth G. Stavitzke stated that addicts do crimes to get money to feel better.
References
- Allied Against Opioid Abuse. (2019). Education can help prevent prescription opioid misuse. Retrieved from https://againstopioidabuse.org/learn/
- American Academy of Family Physicians. (2019 February). Study: fp’s who learn acupuncture prescribe fewer opioids. Retrieved from https://www.aafp.org/news/health-of-the public/20190221acupuncture-opioids.html
- American Society of Anesthesiologists. (2018). Non-opioid treatment. Retrieved from https://www.asahq.org/whensecondscount/pain-management/non-opioid-treatment/
- Field, Kelly. (2018 September). A new challenge for colleges: opioid-addicted students. Retrieved from https://hechingerreport.org/a-new-challenge-for-colleges-opioid-addicted students/
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018, April). National center for health statistics. [Web page]. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/states/indiana/indiana.htm
- National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2019, January). Opioid overdose crisis. [Web page].
- Retrieved from https://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/opioids/opioid-overdose-crisis
- Opioid Overdoses Treated in Emergency Departments (2018, March 16). In Centers for disease control and Prevention. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/wr/mm6709e1.htm
- Opiod Overdose Crisis (2019, January). In National Institute on Drug Abuse. Retrieved from https://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/opioids/opioid-overdose-crisis
- Ornstein, Charles., Tigas Mike., Grochowski Jones, Ryan. (2016 March). Now there’s proof: docs who get company cash tend to prescribe more brand-name meds. Retrieved from https://www.propublica.org/article/doctors-who-take-company-cash-tend-to-prescribe more-brand-name-drugs
- U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (2018 June). SAMSHA announces $930 million funding opportunity to combat the opioid crisis. Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2018/06/15/samhsa-announces-930-million-funding opportunity-to-combat-opioid-crisis.html
- White House. (2019 March). President Donald j. Trump’s fight against the opioid epidemic continues to help Americans around the country. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/president-donald-j-trumps-fight - opioid-epidemic-continues-help-americans-around-country/
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Bureaucratic Injection: Government in Hoosier Medicine. (2021, Mar 17).
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South American Indigenous People
For thousands of years now South American indigenous people have been growing the plant coca. These coca plants have been found to make the drug known today as cocaine. Columbia has been known today to be the world’s number one producer of cocaine. In many parts of Columbia these coca plants are what are fueling their economy and putting food on the tables of the peasant farmers growing these plants. The Columbian government has started to take action and put a stop to the illegal growth of cocaine. However, it is a long slow process that I don’t think will stop the growth of these coca plants because of the need to grow and make cocaine for these farmers and the high demand coming from the cartels and other groups.
Columbia was Latin America’s 4th largest economy a few years back but it also has a high poverty rate of about 24% or more. The farmers living in the rural areas are among this poverty rate. They lack power the best way to make a living and survive is by working in the coca fields. Sometimes another crop is making more money than coca but coca never goes down. There is such a high demand for cocaine in countries all around the world that the price is always an above-average price. This is like an insurance policy for these people. “Because of the lack of state control, the necessary amount of land is available for all kinds of illegal or informal activity. Colombian coca farmers use approximately an accumulated area of between 169,000 hectares to produce the country’s cocaine,” according to the UNODC. More than 100,000 Columbian farming families live off coca.
As I mentioned earlier, the government is making an effort to reduce the amount of cocaine being made and sold illegally to other countries but it hardly is making a dent in the amount of cocaine being made yearly. The government has tried alternate crop development but the amount of money that is made growing coca plants is much higher than what you could make growing for example bananas, breadfruit, and other crops. When farming families decide to sign up for a crop substitution program, the cartels and other criminal groups are threatening these families and killing them for going away from growing coca. They want them to continue tending coca bushes. The government is also going through and seizing cocaine and destroying crops.
As we learned in the class, there are some powerful cartel groups involved in the illicit drug trade of cocaine. One example of a powerful cartel group is the Medellin Cartel led by Pablo Escobar. They were destroyed in 1993 but they were a ruthless organization. They would kidnap or murder those who interfered with their business. They even killed government officials, politicians, and innocent bystanders. “And as the state attempts to reclaim lands ceded by the rebels under the peace deal, it is often finding those challenging it over the crops aren’t drug trafficking organizations at all, but farmers’ unions and civil society groups. At times the conflicts between the two have turned deadly. This was the case last October, when farmers blocked the military from entering coca farms outside the southern city of Tumaco and officials opened fire, killing a number of civilians,” according to the New York Times. I found this to be very interesting how the farmers are joining the fight and blocking the military from entering.
All in all, the farmer’s lives in Columbia are being forced into being all about coca. With them lacking wealth and a bad economy in the areas they live in it seems if they want to live and support their families they will forever be growing coca for these various drug trafficking groups.
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Prevent Opioid Abuse and Addiction
One solution to the inflating narcotic trafficking industry, the United States urges the United Nations to consider reducing the amount of opioid prescriptions medical professionals are authorized to prescribe for legitimate medical conditions. Many people who have been prescribed a painkiller abuse it therefore, becoming addicted. The United States has created a three-step plan to avoid this. First, set requirements a patient must meet in order to be prescribed the drug in the first place must be established. Then, the patient must be regulated, only being given specific dosages that pertain to their condition along with required follow-up appointments to ensure they no longer are in need of the medication. As a third and final step, professionals must make certain that the patient no longer has access to the medication as the drug serves no purpose in helping them. This plan should be effective in greatly reducing the amount of people who become addicted to opioids which as a result, decreases the need for illicit drug trafficking.
As a second solution, the United States recommends devising a program to help raise awareness of the deleterious effects drug abuse has on millions around the globe. This program will be funded by the International Development Association (IDA) and implemented into schools as well as the public in numerous countries focusing almost entirely on children of the ages fourteen to seventeen and in some cases, even younger. Early introduction and reinforcement of this information has proven to be the most effective. The idea that drugs and working in the cartel are not the solution to their situation must be conveyed. Thus, this group will receive a basic knowledge on the consequences of narcotic abuse and be motivated to remain in school rather than dropping out to work in the cartels. Therefore, the industry in the area will suffer a lack of workers, or “foot soldiers,” and operation will then be forced to decline. In some cases, awareness is the key to prevention.
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Prevent Opioid Abuse and Addiction. (2021, Mar 17).
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History of the Opioid Epidemic
Twenty seconds is all it took to kill 19-year-old Dustin Manning. His devastated parents,said the toxicology report found he had taken a toxic mix of heroin and fentanyl, a synthetic opioid so powerful it's fatal.”the amount of fentanyl in his body was equivalent to 3 grains of salt. Less than an hour later, at 6:53am, another phone call was placed to 911. Half a mile down the road, 18-year-old, Joseph Abraham was found slumped on his floor by his parents. He had no pulse. According to both sets of parents Dustin and Joseph hadn't been in touch in recent years, yet it appears that the pill wrappings were identical. This tragic story was found on fox 8. Could this have been prevented if the healthcare industry had done more to prevent opioids from being so convenient to the public from getting them so easy?
Let's start with what is an opioid and opioid is an substance that acts on opioid receptor, the nervous system, to produce morphine like effects. The misuse of and addiction to opioids including pain relievers, heroin, and synthetic opioids such as fentanyl is a serious national crisis that affects public health as well as social and economic welfare. Sure there may be some pros such as *they were called the “wonder drug” *They were a louse epidemic *They were prominent pain relievers
But there is always the horrible truth behind opioids such as… * There are so many being prescribed * At least 90 americans a day die from an opioid overdose * The current opioid epidemic is the deadliest drug crisis in American history. In 1889 the Bayer CO. started production of a synthetic opioid,Heroin, on a commercial scale. From its first trials it was considered the wonder drug and as addicts discovered its effects could be amplifying by injecting it.
World War II was a turning point for physicians treating pain as doctors worked to treat severely injured soldiers.opened Anesthesiologists "nerve block clinics" in the 1950s and 1960s to manage pain without having to resort to surgery, according to a history published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in 2003. In 1998, Purdue Pharma created a video promotion called "I Got My Life Back." It followed six people who suffered from chronic pain and were treated with OxyContin.
Did you know Enough opioids are prescribed in the United States each year to keep every man, woman and child on them around the clock for one month. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CMS) report that for chronic non-cancer pain, opioid dependence occurs in 26 percent of patients using them. One out of every 550 patients started on opioid therapy has died of opioid-related causes a median of 2.6 years after their first opioid and at least 90 americans die daily from an opioid overdose.
The current opioid epidemic is the deadliest drug crisis in American history. Overdoses, fueled by opioids, are the leading cause of death for Americans killing roughly 64,000 people last year, more than guns or car accidents, and doing so at a pace faster than the H.I.V. epidemic did at its peak.
How do you confront an epidemic that has claimed more lives than HIV/AIDS crisis at its peak? How do you counteract a system that incentives the flow of prescription painkillers from doctors to patients and ends up getting 3 million americans addicted each year? And how do you reverse surging demand for prescription opioids’ illegal substitutes, which are more damaging and toxic but far cheaper and easier to obtain? You could start like President Trump declared the opioid crisis a “public health emergency” now this is a step in the right direction but what we need is the “Ryan White Care Act” which is an act of the United States Congress and is the largest federally funded program in the United States for people living with HIV/AIDS. The act sought funding to improve availability of care for low-income, uninsured and underinsured victims of AIDS and their families.
For the opioid epidemic, such as additional funding would allow more people to receive medication-assisted treatment (MAT), which mimics opioids but less addictive potential and can wean addicts off their dependence. And it would prevent as many overdoses and deaths
- 33,000 people die for opioid overdoses in 2015 according to The center for disease control and prevention.
- 1 to 3 americans were prescribed opioids in 2015 So “4 out of this class would have been on opioids Just think about that
- So can the healthcare industry do more to combat the opioid crisis?
- To answer this question I have provided with the benefits of opioids * the harmful effects of opioids and ultimately concluded WITHOUT A DOUBT THEY CAN AND MUST!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
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