The Threat of Nuclear Power

There is a touching book based on a real story called Sadako and the Thousand Paper Cranes written by Eleanor Coerr. The book is about a two-year-old girl Sadako who survived Hiroshima bombing, but by the age of twelve she was diagnosed with thyroid cancer. She was informed that she had one year to live. The story is about her journey during the last year of her life. The plot is about Sadako making a thousand origami cranes, as the Japanese legend promises one wish to those who can do it. Her only wish was to live and that gave her hope, but she died before she could finish making a thousand paper cranes.

After Fukushima, Chernobyl, Hiroshima and Nagasaki disasters we know a nuclear war can wipe us all out, but despite the public concern for environment, international relations, and the future of our planet it has not made any impact on those in who have the power to stop the madness. It seems like the greed for money and power is the main reason nothing is being done about it. The likelihood of nuclear disaster occurring in one of the power plants somewhere is relatively small, but the aftermath of one is too great of a risk to take. Fukushima is still leaking into the Pacific Ocean seven years after the earthquake, and the area near Chernobyl power station is still uninhabitable thirty-two years later. Nuclear weapons probably pose a greater risk than a nuclear reactor meltdown, still it does not mean we should keep building nuclear power plants. Even though nuclear energy is cleaner than fossil fuels it can still be dangerous.

Nuclear Power is the manipulation of nuclear atomic reactions, using process called nuclear fission. With nuclear fission atoms are split and made into kinetic energy which heats up pipes and produces steam inside the generators which is the converted into electricity. Most Nuclear energy today is retrieved from nuclear fission, which depends on the use of uranium and plutonium. The first nuclear power plant was established in Russia in 1954, then in England in 1956 Nuclear energy was opened for commercial production. Today Nuclear power makes up fourteen percent of the world's electricity. Even though it is carbon dioxide free, it's not pollution free and can still be harmful if used as a weapon, or if a disaster occurred in one of the power plants around the world. The reason nuclear power is so dangerous is because of its radioactive emissions given off by Cesium, plutonium, Strontium, uranium, iodine, tritium and radioactive isotopes called alpha, beta and gamma radiation which differ in their relative power and intensity. Gamma radiation is the strongest form of radiation because of its penetrating force which can cause a blast sweeping everything within its range. Alpha radiation does most damage when ingested into living bodies. As contaminated food and water gets into the digestive system it damages cell membranes and kills them causing development of cancer overtime. Beta radiation consists of tiny particles that can pass through skin tissue severely wounding it. While there are some precautions and measures corporations have to take to ensure safety to the public the long-term threat of nuclear energy or weapons still poses a great danger to all living beings.

In 2011 on March 11 Japan faced an event that nobody foresaw. Caused by a magnitude nine earthquake followed with a powerful tsunami three reactors of the nuclear power station Fukushima Daichi began to meltdown creating a complete disaster that continues to affect the world to this day. After the backup generators failed to supply cold water to the cores, Uranium rods started to melt within just a couple of hours after the earthquake hit, turning uranium into hot molten lava which made its way through the containment tank and then the concrete floor and eventually into the earth. Now the water from the mountains nearby pours over the reactors and becomes radioactive, making its way into the Pacific Ocean, and contaminating oceanic life and water. Today seven years after the disaster Fukushima is still contaminating the ocean because nobody can get close to the cores to clean up the mess as anyone could be killed by exposure to radiation within minutes. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster happened on April 26, 1986 in the city of Pripyat, Ukraine. While Fukuhara occurred due by to a natural geological event The Chernobyl meltdown happened due to poor management and miscommunication. When the meltdown happened the toxic air from the blast drifted over for miles and forced 350,000 people to leave their homes and evacuate. During this incident many people died, and the authorities are the ones to blame for the incompetence and lack of preparation for an event like that. The precise number of casualties is unknown, but according the International Atomic Energy Agency there were fifty-six direct deaths, nine of which were children who died of thyroid cancer. One hundred thirty-three servicemen were hospitalized with acute radiation sickness and twenty-eight of them died within a few weeks after. Casualties of Chernobyl would not happen today because we have better understanding and better safety precautions for situations as such. Another thing that poses danger is nuclear weapons. During 1940s and 1950s the United States was preparing for warfare during the Cold War. The nuclear tests took place in Bikini Atoll located in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. They performed twenty-three tests over twelve years, forcing the settlers of the island to relocate due to high levels of radiation. Seventy years later we can still see the aftermath of that operation as many of the inhabitants of the island developed cancer and other diseases related to the radiation from the tests.

Currently there are 450 nuclear power plants around the world. Annually they produce from 2000 to 2300 metric tons of high-level radioactive waste and a lot of it is not stored safely. Some radioactive elements take minutes to decay while other take thousands of years. For example, Tc-99 takes 220,000 years to decay, I-129 17 million years, Np-237 two million years, and Pu-239 24,000 years. Also, used uranium fuel rods which are extremely dangerous and must be stored in facilities with special water pools to be cooled off with cold water for ten years before they can be safely removed and put into dry storage. Nuclear radiation if not stored properly emits ionizing molecules, the same kind of particles that scatter when a nuclear bomb explodes. Ionizing molecules damage human DNA and kill cells or cause them to mutate which then progress into cancer. The effects of radiation on the food we eat are extremely worrisome. Fukushima radiation leaks into the water, the algae absorb radiation, crustaceans eat the algae, big fish eats crustaceans, humans eat the fish, and humans get cancer. We're jeopardizing things we depend on, we put toxic waste into the ocean we fish from. After the Fukushima disaster we have been finding radiation in tuna. Radiation gets into the food, then into breast milk, and that results in babies being born with deformities.

Increasing rates of cancer at this scale are something we've not had before, and it's clearly caused by the toxins put into the environment. Cancer can be linked to pollution and pesticides, but certain cancers like leukemia and thyroid cancers are linked to isotope iodine 131 used in nuclear power plants. Immense numbers of Children have been getting cancers as such at an early age which is something we have not observed before people started to use nuclear power. Everyday forty-three children are born with cancer eight percent of which is leukemia cancer and two percent is thyroid cancer. The UNDP and UNICEF report stated, A well-established increase in thyroid cancer diagnosed in children and adolescents pose a major problem for health services, particularly in Belarus and Ukraine. The populations in the affected regions also suffer from endemic goitre (enlarged thyroid gland) ranging from mild to severe, due to a deficiency of iodine in the diet. Iodine deficiency as well as affecting the thyroid gland diminishes the. Other diseases can also be caused by the Radiation from nuclear weapons and power plants. They include Cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, diabetes, and Congenital hypothyroid. Constant bombings like the ones in the Bikini Atoll had consequences on the marine life. Now we can see specifically in the Pacific Ocean starfish have been dying in large numbers, starfish with missing limbs and decaying internal organs. What happens to animals happens to us. We cannot assume that Radiation doesn't affect us just because we don't see immediate effects. If Radiation affects wildlife is also affects humans.

People dismiss the consequences of Fukuhara, thinking that radiation can be diluted by the Pacific Ocean and that the problem will sort itself out. This is naive and somewhat misleading as the contamination can lead to bioconcentration in the food chain. Possible effects on the future could include the imbalance in food chain and species dying in large numbers causing other larger species to adapt to finding different food, which can cause mass extinctions of species that are useful to us. We must take action and use safer methods to produce electricity. We must maintain neutral international relations with other countries as that would improve the quality of life around the world and reduce the risk of nuclear conflict. Instead of using fossil fuels and nuclear energy we should build cars and houses powered by solar panels. Another alternative could be building more windmills, geothermal, and hydroelectric stations. As individuals we can help by wasting less electricity, be more efficient, turn off the lights and hang our clothes to dry.

In a safe and sustainable future, we won't be using nuclear energy for anything as it is expensive and dangerous. Renewable energy is better for the environment, our health and it is in our interest to use it. If people use Renewable energy there won't be another Chernobyl or Fukushima disaster. It's about time to think about what kind of a planet we're leaving future generations with, it's unfair to create problems and put them on the shoulders of young people. We have to change the way choose to produce energy and deal with international conflicts so that no more twelve-year-old kids die of thyroid cancer.

Works Cited

Grady, Denise. Measuring Radioactive Elements and Their Effects. The New York Times, The New York Times, 4 Apr. 2011, www.nytimes.com/2011/04/05/health/05primer.html.
Jorgensen, Timothy J., and Health Physics and Radiation Protection Graduate Program. Bikini Islanders Still Deal with Fallout of US Nuclear Tests, 70 Years Later. The Conversation, The Conversation, 10 Sept. 2018, theconversation.com/bikini-islanders-still-deal-with-fallout-of-us-nuclear-tests-70-years-later-58567.
Kirk WolfingerAmerica and the nuclear fusion. BBC Documentaries. 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YEuzrfuap64
UNDP and UNICEF with the support of UN-OCHA and WHO. The Human Consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident A Strategy for Recovery. 6 February 2002. Pg. 36. https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/strategy_for_recovery.pdf
Coerr, Eleanor. Full Text of "Passing", London: F. Warne ; New York : Scribner, Welford, and Armstrong, 2004, archive.org/stream/SadakoAndTheThousandPaperCranes-English/SadakoAndTheThousandPaperCranes-A4-EleanorCoerr_djvu.txt.

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The Myths of Nuclear Power Safety

There are many myths and lies surrounding pro-nuclear power that are being made public by people who have a vested interest in the production and growth of the nuclear power industry. The myths that nuclear is a safe energy source, cost less to construct and operate, is better for the environment and has little risk of being used for terrorism all are being presented to the public from the media who are being fed these lies by the Nuclear Science Organization and nuclear power business when in fact nuclear power poses a huge safety and environmental risk to all living life forms. The public has a right to be educated on the truths that surround these lies and to be educated on the subject of nuclear power.

Nuclear power plants are very complex systems which are operated by humans who can and do make mistakes such as improper maintenance leading to equipment failures and human error makes a future meltdown possible no matter how well a plant is designed. Human error can cause accidents and failures that cause safety concerns for the workers, the environment and the general public. There are also many safety concerns because of failure that result from natural disasters flooding, fires and earthquakes. We have seen many accidents and failures of nuclear power facilities such as those in Chernobyl, Three Mile Island and Fukushima that could be avoided in the future with the discontinuation of nuclear power facilities.

One of the most common myths surrounding nuclear power is that the operating costs of nuclear power stations are far less than those of a coal power station. Nuclear power and coal stations actually have similar costs in the combined expenses of operation, maintenance and fuel costs. Nuclear power plants only have a lower fuel cost but they have a higher operation and maintenance cost which operationally becomes very comparable to that of a coal power station. New nuclear plant construction has a very high initial capital investment with an estimated construction cost upward of $9 billion per unit and most nuclear power stations have not been built within budget and most greatly exceed these budgets. The last station constructed in Finland was “3 years behind schedule and at least 1.7 billion euros over budget” (Disendorf).

Another common myth with nuclear power is that very little waste is produced compared to coal power, this results in an unfair and misleading comparison. The high level nuclear waste produced by the nuclear power plant is uranium which contains radioactive material and is extremely hazardous to all life forms as well as the environment. The radioactive waste material is regulated by the government and must be properly contained and isolated in order to protect human life as well as the environment. Coal power does produce waste in the form of coal ash however when compared in the same amount to that of radioactive waste the coal ash has much less harmful properties and some of this wast e can be reused for things such as making concrete.

When it comes to the discussion of dealing with the radioactive waste produced by the nuclear power plants one myth being reported is that the problem has been solved long term in the managing of the high level nuclear wastes. The truth is this problem has been solved in engineering theory meaning that according to science and on paper there is a solution but this problem has never actually been solved in practice of safely disposing and storing the radioactive material. “There is no long- term high-level nuclear waste dump operating in the world” (Disendorf ). The dump site on the Yucca Mountian in Nevada was shut down in 2010 under the orders of President Obama when he suspended licensing needed for this facility to operate in order to continue storing high levels of nuclear waste. The countries of Finland and Sweden are in the process of building underground dumps for nuclear waste storage which is a temporary solution because no one knows how to create facilities that can house and will be able to keep radioactive waste safe for long periods of time, the waste must be kept safe and undisturbed for at least 10,000 years.

Reprocessing or recycling of the nuclear waste is an idea that has been introduced to solve the problem with storage of these waste products. Unused fuel can be recycled to make new fuel and most of the waste after the recycling process would only require a storage time of 300 years leaving only about 1% of the waste radioactive. Recycling or reprocessing the nuclear waste seems like a great plan in theory however reprocessing would be very costly and poses environmental and safety concerns. Reprocessing uses a series of chemical operations which separates the plutonium and uranium from other nuclear waste that comes from the used fuel in the nuclear power reactors. The separated plutonium can be used to fuel reactors however the cost of the reprocessing and the use of plutonium to fuel the reactors is far more expensive than using uranium fuel and disposing of the used fuel or nuclear waste directly. Due to the prohibitive costs the U.S. decided in the late 1970’s to not reprocess the used fuel from their reactors but to dispose of the waste in an underground repository where it would need to remain isolated for at least tens of thousands of years from the environment. A recent industry estimate showed that a reprocessing plant with a capacity of processing 2,000 metric tons of nuclear fuel waste annually would cost $20 billion to build and two of these facilities would be needed in the U.S. alone just to reprocess all of it’s nuclear fuel waste.

If spent fuel is not disposed of properly it could be used for or stolen by terrorists and used for creating a nuclear weapon which causes security issues. Reprocessing would increase the risk of nuclear terrorism, very little plutonium less than 20 pounds in fact is needed to make a simple nuclear weapon. If the U.S. continues it’s practice of storing nuclear power waste the plutonium remains bound in the used fuel making it impossible to steal however when plutonium is separated it’s stored in a concentrated powder form increasing the risk of theft and terrorism.

There are a few arguments surrounding the threat of nuclear weapons being produced from the waste. One argument is countries that are currently using nuclear power or pursuing the use of nuclear power have signed a treaty stating they will comply with the rules of not using their nuclear technologies toward making nuclear weapons however any country with nuclear technology needs to be considered a great risk. Security of the nuclear plants has been a large concern because many of these plants do not follow the same safety measures and protocols in the protection of the nuclear byproducts resulting in a high probability of a security breech, theft and misuse of the spent fuel.

Some argue the spent fuel from the reactors of a nuclear power station does not produce weapon grade plutonium which would not be usable in making a nuclear weapon. Nuclear bombs have been made from the reactor grade plutonium and although they are less efficient and less predictable the amount of damage is still the same, in fact the unpredictability of these weapons makes the risk greater.

Another argument is the countries that have developed nuclear weapons used military facilities and not civil facilities to research and develop their weapons.

The truth is many countries have used civil nuclear power plants and spent fuel to develop nuclear bombs, these countries include India, Pakistan, North Korea and currently Iran. Other countries such as the UK and France used nuclear power to add to their stocks of plutonium. The countries of Argentina, Brazil, South Korea, Libya, South Africa and Taiwan used nuclear power to begin the research and testing process for developing nuclear power but decided to dismantle their facilities.

My final argument on nuclear power is safety for the environment and all living life form.

Nuclear power has been called a clean source of energy and the nuclear power plants are said to not release carbon dioxide emissions. This is a deceivingly true statement. Nuclear power plants may not emit carbon dioxide during operation but every step in the nuclear fuel cycle except the actual operation of the reactors burn fossil fuels and emit carbon dioxide.

Nuclear power plants use uranium ore as fuel and the mining process releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the environment. There is also Carbon dioxide released into the environment when new nuclear power plants are built and in the transport of radioactive waste also causing carbon dioxide emissions.

Nuclear power plants are constantly emitting radiation, though these are low levels of radiation it’s a constant emission into the environment. Studies have shown an increased rate of cancer among people who have worked in nuclear power plants and those who have lived near these nuclear power plants. “The degree of damage low levels of radiation cause to wildlife, plants and the ozone layer is not fully understood. More research is being done to determine the magnitude of effects caused by low levels of radiation in the environment.” (Kivi)

Cooling systems have been put into place to keep the nuclear power reactors from overheating however these cooling systems are causing problems to the environment. Water is pulled from rivers and oceans to cool the reactors however fish are being sucked into these intake systems resulting in the death of many fish. When the water is used to cool the system it is then returned to the ocean or river from which it came but it is now roughly twenty five degrees warmer than the water was originally, the warming of the water causes a shock on the fish and plant life killing more fish.

The transportation and storage of the nuclear waste poses another safety and environmental concern. Nuclear waste is often not stored onsite and requires transportation to a storage facility. The waste would be transported in large trucks and in the event of an accident or a possible leak it would cause a large radioactive spill site causing contamination to our soil and water ways. We could also see soil contamination in the even of the casks the waste is stored in leaking and with the storage needing to be maintained for a minimum of 10,000 there is no way to know if they will hold up.

Even when we take human error out of the equation we will still have natural disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis like the ones that caused the damage and failure of the plant in Fukushima. These natural disasters resulted in major damage to the nuclear reactors causing the system leak radioactive waste releasing radioactivity into the air, soil and sea. The contamination of the area led to a large evacuation that is still in effect for many people who are displaced from their homes without an end in sight. This was a devastating event for the people of Japan as well as the sea life and has been a very costly clean up and repair process and a drain on not only the country of Japan but other countries as well. There are also concerns about other types of natural disasters such as hurricanes, tornados and even the rise in sea level that can lead to catastrophic failures. Do the benefits of nuclear power out weigh the risks?

The list of fallacies told by the nuclear power companies to the general public will continue to go on and on but the facts show that most all of their claims are lies. Many of the statements given only contain partial truths such as many environmentalists have become pro-nuclear, when in truth aside from two well know environmentalists very few prominent environmentalists are pro-nuclear. Another example of these partial truths is with the decrease in oil production we will need nuclear power as a substitute. The truth is the main sources of fuel for our electricity generation globally are coal and gas. Oil is mostly burnt for transportation so unless electric cars become used much more largely globally in our daily transportation nuclear power is irrelevant as a solution for oil conservation as we see a decline in oil production. As long as the nuclear power companies continue to be in business lies will be told and the people of the general public will have to look outside of the media in order to obtain facts and educate themselves on the hidden agenda of those in the business of seeing nuclear power succeed.

The safety, cost and sustainability of nuclear power have been falsely reported on for many years because of lies fed to the media by those with a vested interest in seeing growth in the nuclear power industry. Those lies have only taken into consideration the best interest in the growth of the nuclear power business and have not considered what is in the best interest of the environment, or human life which is you the people who will be living with the consequences of their decisions.

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My Attitude to Nuclear Power Isses

As a voting citizen of Solutionville i opposed to our town building a nuclear power plant due to the fact that this project will take a long period of time to actually build. Also in order to build a plant like this you need money and i highly disagree that our town spends billions of dollar invested into something that can cause great damage to our community and well-being. Nuclear power plants can be a serious danger to our town in the wrong hands. My final reason on why nuclear power plants are not a great idea for our town is that it is not a renewable source.

Before i get into the facts about nuclear power plants i want to address what exactly is nuclear power. Nuclear energy is basically the splitting of an atom and since the atom is being split it gives off energy. Fission is the splitting of an unstable isotope when a neutron interacts with it causing it to break apart. On the other hand, fusion is the bonding of 2 light isotopes coming together to create a new heavier nuclei and since their bonding they will give off a great amount of energy. There are 430 nuclear plants in the whole world. Also there has been 2 major accidents due to nuclear power plants, these accidents happened during 1979,1986, and 2011. Also the United States has produced the most amount of nuclear energy than any other country.

Nuclear energy has its advantages but it also has its disadvantages as well. These plants do not produce carbon dioxide on its own which of course helps our environment. That does to change the fact that nuclear energy does not give it off when it is creating the energy but lets not forget carbon dioxide is being created because of all the activities that help run the nuclear plant. Nuclear power plants may give off not that high radiation but that still does not make it any better. A disadvantage low radiation has is that it affects the environment. Not to mention the fact that nuclear power plants have radioactive waste. This waste may end Solutionville for a long, long period of time. Although there is a way to prevent radioactive waste from being exposed to us is by storing it underground. This is a solution although it is not something we can rely on to take care of that problem.

In addition i will like to add that since nuclear power plants do not create that much carbon dioxide it does not cause that much damage to the human body. In other to agree or disagree with if nuclear power plants are needed in Solutionville, you have to understand what exactly is carbon dioxide and its advantages and disadvantages. Carbon dioxide is a gas that we as humans also produce when we breathe out, it is a big factor in cellular respiration. We as humans give it off and plants take it in and they produce clean oxygen for us to breathe in. It is a give and get situation. Despite carbon dioxide being a big factor in our own bodies too much can cause damage to our body. Carbon dioxide may not be poisonous but breathing in this gas for a long period of time cuts off the ability to breathe in oxygen.

Carbon dioxide does not just affect our human bodies it also affect our agriculture, our oceans which cover 71% of our world. Factories all around the world are constantly creating carbon dioxide, and adding a nuclear power plant will not make it better, it is just adding to the amount of gas there is already. May I add that Solutionville`s people may be at risk here. Building a nuclear power plant may expose the public to serious health issues. Sure, nuclear power plants may not give off a large amount of radiation but that is all it takes to expose us, the citizens of Solutionville. Having low radiation being constantly exposed to us damages our DNA, and puts adults and children that live around nuclear power plants in danger of conceiving cancer.

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Nuclear Power and its Problems

Nuclear power occurs from a series of reactions that causes the build-up and release of energy which in turn generates heat. This heat is then used as steam to power turbines which helps produce the electricity. The production of this electricity is used to power many things including but not limited to homes, schools, business etc. ("What Is Nuclear Power And Energy? | GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy")

Nuclear power is considered safe when compared with some other energy sources such as solar, wind, hydropower and fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas. However, some issues do exist when producing the nuclear power. One of the issues with nuclear power is controlling the rate of the reactions during the production of nuclear power/energy. If the reaction becomes unmanageable and the reaction can't be contained this can lead to a meltdown causing high levels of radio-active fall out. Such an example of this occurred in Chernobyl 1986 – the reactor exploded due to loss of electricity, Three Mile Island – March 28 1979 – the water supply in the circuit malfunctioned causing the circuit to overheat due to the lack of the electricity, Fukushima Daiichi March 2011 – An earthquake caused the nuclear plant to shut down because of no electricity, the reactors over heated causing a disaster, to mention a few ("A Brief History Of Nuclear Accidents Worldwide").

Another example of the possible problems that can arise from nuclear power is the disposal of the waste products from the reactions. Once the waste material is produced they are radio-active and can stay radioactive at very high levels for many years. This could potentially cause a huge concern, as if this radio-active waste gets into the wrong hands, the waste can be used in nuclear weapons. ("Nuclear Reprocessing: Dangerous, Dirty, And Expensive")

Although the above-mentioned situations have occurred with nuclear power, the United States of America benefits from the use of nuclear power, without it there would be no electricity. The USA produces more nuclear power that any other country, producing more than 30% of nuclear generation of electricity. Since the production of electricity from the nuclear power plant is continuous, this saves the USA money for example, on the cost of other fuels such as petrol. Another reason it is beneficial to the USA is that it reduces the cost of coal and oil as the nuclear power can be used as an alternative source. Cars can now be run on electricity instead of fuel, a cleaner and safer alternative to fuel ("Nuclear Power In The USA - World Nuclear Association")

Although, Nuclear power has its problems, where would our country and the world be without it. Think about not having electricity in your home, you can't watch TV, use the computer, cook, keep your home warm in the winter and cool in the summer, the list is endless. This is why nuclear power is a necessity. With all the safety protocols put in place during the production of nuclear power, it is clean, safe and necessary for the United States and the rest of the World.

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An Issue of Nuclear Authorization

Imagine being told nuclear energy is the answer to many of the problems we face, as you walk into an Environmental Science class one day? I do not have to because this happened to me, and I was prepared to walk to the counselor to ask to be removed from the course. I was shocked! How could those large concrete monuments creating toxic green sludge be our solution? To be honest, all I could envision for our future was that of The Simpsons with talking flowers, three-eyed fish, and yellow skin. But the explanation given by the instructor cleared my concern shortly after they finished. Natural gas and oil are resources wehave only to a certainextent,and,at the rate we use these assets,we willeventually be outand left with only the consequences. These effects can be summed up with the phrase ecological footprint which is the impression left on the earth due the consumption of land and resources over the course of a lifetime. But like most problems, thisresolution can be found in what we current possess. Nuclear energy provides the solution to the prospective problem. To ensure the end of this dependenceon nonrenewable resources, we shouldagree to allownuclear energy to take theplace of our currentreliance on nonrenewable resources. Thismodificationwill have positive effects onthe environment and the economy andwill allowmore individuals to dedicate time tocontinueexpanding our understanding ofnuclear energy.

Nuclear power plants themselves and the processes used are simpler in operation than most expect. In figure 18-14 in The Nucleus: A Chemist's View, we are able to see the basic concept of how the power plants work (732). In layman terms, a nuclear power plant is a large steam generator with the thermal energy source being radioactive atoms housed in a protective container called a reactor. The reactor is where the reactions take place. For the reactions to occur, scientists take atoms of Uranium-238 andhave its bond energy (the energy it takes to hold a neutron to a proton) transformed into thermal energy, a more usable chemical form for us. There are two ways as to how to obtain this kind of bond energy: fission and fusion. The more utilized version, fission, is the splitting of one heavy nucleus (example: Uranium-238) into two smaller lighter nuclei. With this partition of the nuclei, a release of energy occurs because it is an exothermic process. Fusion is considered the opposite of fission in that it is the combination of two smaller, lighter nuclei to create one heavy nucleus. Fusion creates the most energy of the two processes, but it is less stable along with less understood by our scientists. As a way to comprehend how unpredictable and stupendous the act of fusion is, here is an example: the sun is able to create all its energy from the process of fusion (Zumdahl 742-745). And it is because of these processes as well as power plant to transform the outcome, we are able to create energy in a more usable form for our daily lives.

The history of nuclear energy explains when and why public opinion of the source has transitioned and now tends to fall to the opposed side. As stated previous, nuclear energy comes from the energy housed in the bonds between two nucleic particles. The energy itself was first introduced along with radioactivity, excess energy radiating from the source, in the early 1900s.InNuclear Fear, theaccreditedauthor and science historian,Spencer R.Weartexplains how, for years, many scientists sought after a source of energy with an incredible amount of power.Weartunearths the scientists who were able to identify this great power source:PierreCurie and his wife, Marie Curie. These two brought forth this "radiating energy [that released]vastlymore energy, atom for atom, than any other process known" (Weart6). Approximately50 years afterthis discovery, majorscientificbreakthroughs were made to house the energy being released, delivering to the world the first nuclear reactor. Named the Experimental Breeder Reactor II, it was developed to confine this energy. With this, everyone desired the White Cities of the future, a place that ran on this form of clean and continuous energy (Weart 7). After this impressive innovation and twenty years later, the world saw an approximate 65% increase in atomic energy growth and utilization (Pravalie and Bandoc 82). As the years and wars came, studies of the atom and its new uses increased. The atomic bomb, which places a nucleus in a small container then forces the reaction to occur, releasing this energy into the surrounding area, was a deadly outcome of these studies. And to keep the distance between the large increase in information arising and the relationship between the atomic bomb and nuclear energy, Dwight D. Eisenhower dedicated an atomic power station in Pennsylvania to the cause of scientific progressto the cause of peace in the name of nuclear energy during 1958. Eisenhower believed in putting the atom to work for the good of mankind, not his destruction (Peters and Wooley). Over the course of a century, what was once infinitesimal and somewhat obscure is being driven to the forefront of our nation's present-day concerns.

As stated previously, nuclear energy and their power plants are relatively new to the world, so we have not completely mastered or attained all the knowledge that can be gained from our studies on nuclear energy and the atom. Considering this, we have had several accidents in this field. Although not the first documentation of a nuclear related incident, Chernobyl, located in the USSR, was by far the worst nuclear accident of our time. Based on Table 1 in Pravalie and Bandoc's article, Chernobyl ranked a seven on the INES (International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale), same as Fukushima, the second worst incident of nuclear energy (87). Events such as these caused the public opinion on nuclear energy to shift greatly away from being pro-nuclear. Most of the public no longer saw the White City, but the three-piece symbol stating: radioactive hazard (Weart 7). In their manuscript, Nguyen and Yim provide the public opinion towards this energy source. These two explain how nuclear accidents.have significantly damaged the public acceptance of nuclear power, but with the acceptance of the dangers in all forms of energy extracting and the recognition of the benefits, public opinion of the events return to the pre-tragedy state of mind (Nguyen and Yim 3-4). Kok and Benli, authors in the journal Renewable Energy, advocate for nuclear energy and as far to explain how the Fukushima death toll was not an outcome of a problem with the power plant, it was the tsunami [that] caused 16,000 people to die (Kok and Benli 876). Even years after the accident, people still associate the mass incident with that of the power plants fault without the proper understanding. Because of this lack, public opinion still stands in their beliefs against nuclear energy. Ann Stouffer Bisconti, director of the Nuclear Energy Institute, addresses the need for a change in public opinion towards nuclear energy in her article presented in the Progress in Nuclear Energy journal. She explains how in the media; nuclear energy only gets acknowledged when there are negative events occurring. "The impact of accidents on public attitudes can be surprising", she states. It "varies depending on several factors, including the perception of need, proximity, perception of control, and the communications surrounding the 'teachable moment'"(104). With this, we can see how if the media, government, etc. were to address the accidents with a different attitude, it would allow for better communication given to and understanding from the public. Nuclear energy and the aura surrounding has the potential to be seen in a better light. The phrasing of the words teachable moment also appeases those who oppose and favor nuclear energy. This short phrase does not take away from the seriousness or magnitude of the incidents, but simply means we need to learn from mistakes made in the past to have a better response and have a more positive outcome for our future.

Keeping the planet in an ideally clean state is very important to our livelihood and the promise to keep nuclear energy. Our lifestyles are affected daily by the amount of carbon dioxide rejected by factories across the plant; all the while, nuclear energy is an eye-opening source that emits, in a sense, no carbon dioxide into our already weakening environment from its facilities. Because, as stated previously, nuclear energy is the equivalent of a large steam engine, it is not radioactive waste in the form of smoke, but steam, coming out of the commonly envisioned smokestacks. In their article addressing the economics of nuclear energy, Pravalie and Bandoc quotes the International Atomic Energy Agency by stating between 1970 and 2016 the use of nuclear power plants has been able to [prevent] the release of over 60 billion tons of CO2, that we would have gotten from burning our other energy sources (83). The halt of carbon dioxide from being consistently ejected into our air will better the surrounding areas. In big name cities of the southern part of the United States, such as Houston, where oil and natural gas plants are the main draw to the city, the air quality will improve drastically. Because it has been able to cut the CO2 emissions by having a low rate itself, nuclear energy needs to be the major power source we rely on.

To supplement the great environmental aspect further as well as the steam emission and ameliorate nuclear waste, nuclear energy's by-products have the capability of being recycled for additional use. The water vapor that is not expelled into our atmosphere is stored in a cooling tank to be reused in the production cycle, so there is no need to consistently replenish the water supply. The waste product of the nuclear fission of Uranium-238 is Plutonium-239; this synthesized element has a half-life of 24,110 years. A half-life is the time it takes for the mass of the atom to deteriorate to half from its most recent state. There was once cause for concern in this because this deterioration is the decay, the breakdown of particles like any other used item like a banana peel. But where a banana takes a day or two and is reabsorbed readily, Plutonium is taking a sizable amount of time and effort. But, with current evaluations of this element, science has found a way to turn what was once waste into usable fuel pellets for continued use. Chmielewski and Szolucha identifies how the future of nuclear power engineering is oriented on a closed nuclear fuel cycle, our capability to use and reuse everything (237). By providing the steps of how this can be done through a series of in-depth chemical reactions and explanation of the necessary processes, the two demonstrate how thought and progress has already started in this aspect of nuclear energy. The closed-system that Chmielewski and Szolucha offers is necessary for the safeguard of the environment due to its all but complete cease in the reliance on our planet's limited resources. These two possible recycling opportunities add up to create a smaller ecological footprint left on our earth, a better environment for our future.

The reclaiming ability previously stated adds to promote the economy as well as the switch from the over-dependence on fossil fuels to nuclear energy. The boom in the economy will come from two major focal point of the economy: jobs and energy. As a quick overview, increasing available jobs brings increases the workforce as in those who are making money. This money will be put in to the economy due the reliance on consumer goods, bills, etc.. The jobs that will open range from the laborers brought in by big-name companies who will build the plants to those who continuously run and maintain the plant in the years after development, along with the scientist necessary for day to day necessities and studies. Bisconti points out how job messages [are] powerful in promoting government actions to boost the enterprise. She explains how all forms of power plants present the promise of jobs, economic boom, but how an incentive is needed to fully insure the guarantee (111). The most effective incentive for the workers is the promise of a job in their future which is exactly what nuclear energy is capable of doing.

The incentive that effectively promises jobs for years to come is the estimation of 5.7 million tonnes of .uranium resources.sufficient for at least 100 years of nuclear electricity production (Pravalie and Bandoc 86). And, this estimation of one century is based on the idea of a one-use system and does not include the advances made daily in nuclear recycling studies or in nuclear fusion and fission of the trans plutonium elements; these features expand this time period further past 100 years. Also, based on the locations we have currently functioning, nuclear energy and the power plant is relatively inexpensive. Hejazi breaks this down in his article Nuclear Energy: Sense or Nonsense for Environmental Challenges. This comparison has to be done by measuring the differences in capital, operation and maintenance, taxes, and external costs. Based on his research, the capital costs are all amounted on the size and type of plant it is. The average nuclear unit itself is capable of a return approximately half of the initial investment which can then increase based on the power plant's lifetime and the possibility of extension to that lifetime (Hejazi 697). In recent years, science has been able to expand the life of 30 years to 60. The main allocation of money for this type of power plant goes to maintaining the plant, insurance, and taxes based on the fluctuation government laws and regulation. And with the constant increase in our knowledge of nuclear energy, a steady stabilization to these amounts has been brought about. Specifically, for Europe, Hejazi states for each megawatt hour of energy a plant produces, only 0.05 of a Euro is paid to cover insurance costs; this is very low, especially since a plant annually averages 12 billion kilowatt hours (conversion factor: 1 kWh=0.001 MWh). As for the fuel that makes the entire plant functional, only 20% of the financial estimate must be budgeted for this. And over the course of time and the discoveries of large reserves, the prices as of 2017 were averaging 0.44 U.S. dollar per kWh capable of being generated (697). Bundled in these finances is the cost to house the by-product of the continuous reactions, and although nuclear recycling is a possibility with uranium and plutonium, only 4% of the by-product is deemed waste because we have yet to create a way to further use the product. Some countries designate tax payer dollars in addition to requiring the company to pay the cost to place the waste in places like Yucca Mountain in Nevada (Hejazi 697). With nuclear energy being relatively cheap along with the promise of long future economically, it is capable of replacing our current reliance, nonrenewable.

Though they may not be opposed to nuclear energy, some individuals of the public may say that renewable resources like solar would be the better alternative, not nuclear. Solar energy possesses the same benefits nuclear does today in a safer way. In the magazine Solar Today, writer Graham Shorr explains how by buying individual solar panels for one's home, there is a definite promise of a financial return (13). By investing in their own energy producers, the owner is not only capable of gaining money, but being electrical the independent from the electricity network. They could go off-grid. Another benefit of going solar is the incentive of the energy credits some companies offer. Shorr states how certain electrical companies will take the extra energy created for credits, basically sending the investor a check (13). This incentive also allows the owner to take in more money. Even with all these benefits, solar energy, alone, will not solve our problems because it is not for everyone. Solar energy requires high up-front cash.and wait several years for the return, not everyone will be able to put an amount of at least five figures to wait that such a time for a profit (Shorr 13). Most people want the benefits at least within a year of any change on their part. Along with this, solar energy possesses costs that are not broadcasted out right. This form of energy requires installation one has pay for; also, the monetary incentives could be removed with drastic decrease in rarity (Shorr 13). Although many individuals would lean more toward the energy that is solar, there are many concerns hidden from view or forgotten. But there are ways to appease these people who want the solar aspect in their energy production.

Not only has science created better systems to maintain and track the essential information, but it has envisioned hybrid-reforms that could be made to nuclear and solar energy plants. These forms represent the best of both worlds: clean and economically efficient. Siddharth Suman, an independent researcher for India, presents his article Hybrid Nuclear-Renewable Energy Systems: A Review to provide the idea of power plants run on a combination of both nuclear and some kind(s) of renewable energy sources; his main focus being solar. Our public forgets that we have not created the perfect energy system, and how the renewable energy we utilize is not solving all our problems in a single monumental leap towards a completely green process. Our perfect energy solution that we arrogantly demand not only features no carbon dioxide emissions but requires significantly smaller ecological footprint than anything we have currently designed. And as Todd explains how these forms of energy are better for the planet but are a good way of producing for places with little to no resource needed for the specific energy. For example, a mandatory switch to solar would be pointless for places along the northwestern coast of North America where they have long periods of sunless day. But with the construction of the latest ideas of hybrid systems that can improve our energy production, we will reach our goal. In his introduction, Suman identifies this:

Future of nuclear energy is also uncertain because of public apprehensions and subsequent government policies. To overcome the issues derailing these two virtually carbon-free energy sources, a new hybrid or integrated nuclear-renewable energy systems is being proposed and seen as an attraction option (166).

The hybrid system proposed is a way to reach a compromise between the two energy sources. It has the amazing capability to be clean and produce energy efficiently, all the while helping the economy. With energy sources like these, we have the chance to further our studies in the various aspects of what nuclear energy is and what it can be.

In reaction to urge to use nuclear energy, some individuals would be against this. Fear has always been an important standing point in many arguments, and nuclear energy has been seen from the viewpoint of many negative attitudes in the 100 years it has been around. As always, the fear stems from the unknown, but that unknowingness was once what drove the progression of nuclear energy forward in the beginning. The scientist as well as the general public all yearned for the white city that ran on the clean low-cost energy that is nuclear (Weart 7-8). So, what turned the world away from such a brilliant power source? Mass explosions; those that were planned and those that were not. The derivative of the atomic bomb was an issue that knocked nuclear energy into the area of fear. Weart explains how the nuclear industry urgently wanted to dissociate civilian products from bombs.speak not of 'atomic' but of 'nuclear' (Weart 177). The nuclear businesses tried diligently to keep the two bodies separate but even today one of the first ideas that pops up in the nuclear-generation's mind when thinking of it is that of all the negative aspects. Nguyen and Yim explain how over the course of the years, the younger generation tends to be more accepting of nuclear; this is because they have not grown in those years of fear of being under nuclear control (2). And while this fear cannot be completely eradicated, the regulation of nuclear weapons over the years have helped ease the mind of the public. As for the explosions scientists had not planned for, opposes claim nuclear accidents are a damaging outcome of our lack of complete knowledge of nuclear, which is true. As stated previously, Chernobyl was the most devastating nuclear incident as a result of human error (Pravalie and Bandoc 87). The result of accident are increases in birth defects related to the enormous amounts of radioactivity released into the surrounding area and the reiterated fear in such a powerful source we cannot hope to understand as believed by those who oppose.

This fear is not one to be simply wiped with a simple explanation; easing the mind, removing the stigma placed on the nuclear energy is a way to begin. The fact that we can and have kept track of all the nuclear incidents and what went wrong shows how meticulous proposers are about this study. We want to make it better. Also, the fact that some of the accidents were not the cause of human miscalculation, but Mother Nature herself. The Fukushima accident happened because of an earthquake (7.4 on the Richter scale) caused a tsunami. In response to these devastating events relate to nuclear, science has taken and used them to further our studies just as Busconti wanted. Using scientists and engineers is the safest way to bettering nuclear energy. Kosai and Unesaki describe the new System Interruption Nuclear Vulnerability Index (SINVI) which can be used to predict the risk of electricity supply disruption arising from the sudden stoppage of nuclear power operation (1198). This a new and improved computer system that can be installed into the mainframe of the power plant's mainframe and begin running without any necessary prior data that is required by the current vulnerability indexes. The main reason for the need and use of a new one is the fact that the current system will shut down in a state of urgency and not collect the data formulated by the power plant itself (Kosai and Unesaki 1206). With this in mind, the main goals of this new and improved system are to analyze the relationship of three major attributes for evaluating stable electrical supply systems; diversification redundancy and nuclear vulnerability with the outcome of utilizing the nuclear fuel to its best ability to prevent wastefulness. (Kosai and Unesaki 1199). With the continuous support from the computer running the functions of the plant, we can be more prepared and notified sooner in the event of a complication. This system also goes to improve the energy aspect of nuclear; the use of nuclear fuel in our best ability is important because, like anything on our planet, we want to get the most out of as little as possible. We want to make sure we are not wasting anything as serious as fuel reserves especially if we are placing such a large reliance in the them. Over the course of the seven years since the Fukushima accident, advances such as these have been made. The pursuit of this knowledge for ways to better our understanding of nuclear energy and the collection of new data from such a system shows the fear has been taken into consideration and has been used as an influence to urge our studies further.

Altogether, we need to implement a change toward giving our dependence on fossil fuels over to nuclear energy. This will ensure improvement not only to the environment but will produce a thriving economy. With the increase in nuclear energy sites, our studying of all things related to nuclear energy will receive a more informed input. And with time and consistent modifications, nuclear energy can be where we not want, but need it to be for our future consumption. Ultimately, we will reap the benefits on our active journey towards a better and cleaner future and far from the of the style of life of The Simpsons I had once believed we would live.

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Should we Use Nuclear Power as a Main Source of Energy

On April 20, 2010, the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon oil rig was watched by every nation as barrels of oil leaked into the Gulf of Mexico. This spill in particular was caused by a rush of natural gas that burst through the recently poured concrete which was used to seal off the oil well for later use. This caused the ignition of the rig (Pallardy). Eleven workers were killed and seventeen were injured. An estimation of the amount of oil that leaked into the gulf is four million nine hundred thousand barrels, polluting one thousand miles of shoreline (Pallardy).The Chernobyl accident of April 26, 1986 occurred in a similar fashion. According to Greenfacts, a routine test one of the four nuclear reactor's electric control systems caused a power surge. This caused nuclear fuel to overheat which then as a consequence, caused steam explosions, destroying the unit four reactor and building (Chernobyl).

These explosions caused fires to spread along the roof of the machine halls as nuclear material came in contact with combustible gases (Chernobyl). Fires burned for ten days and large amounts of nuclear material was released (Chernobyl). It has been estimated that around three hundred and forty thousand people had to be relocated after the accident and one thousand first responders received the greatest amount of radiation (Chernobyl).In the process of obtaining both nuclear and fossil fueled energy, both present their own unique opportunities for danger. Supporters of power supplied by fossil fuels state that the investment and construction costs of nuclear power facilities are too high. Additionally, that the nuclear material produced by the process of nuclear fission-the splitting of an atom and the collection of the energy released, poses too great of a threat to civilians living near nuclear plants and a threat posed by terrorists who could potentially gain access to the nuclear material. Those who advocate the use of nuclear power emphasize the negative effects the burning of fossil fuels has on the environment as well as the danger of running out of the nonrenewable resource. Fossil fuel consumption has increased and nuclear power plants are reaching the age of retirement, and as of now, there are no new plans to build new facilities. This is where conflict seems to arise. Should countries continue to use fossil fuels as their main source of energy or resort to nuclear power generation?Ben Heard, a prominent advocate of nuclear power and an Australian environmentalist offers nuclear power as a realistic solution to climate change with todays' technology (Scientists).

The basis of his argument is the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which started to increase when the industrial revolution began and it is in proportion with the burning of fossil fuels (History). Scientists such as the Columbian professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Dr. James Hansen, has studied the effect climate change has had on the environment and the role power generation has played in the pollution of the Earth. Along with other scientists, he has stated that any power source used in the future needs to be easily expandable as the need for power will inevitably increase, as well as remain low-carbon emitting. Both scientists have advocated for the use of nuclear power but have acknowledged the idea that the manufacturing of energy cannot be solely reliant on nuclear power or renewable resources by addressing the worldwide problems of the cost and availability of the materials needed to run these power plants. As plutonium is the main material needed to manufacture energy at a nuclear power plant, and it is not accessible in some countries. Although this is a weakness of their argument though they still argue that the positive effects on the environment outweigh the cost of material needed to run nuclear power plants.According to the World Nuclear Association, nuclear power plants tend to have high investment and construction costs but are relatively cheap to maintain. The operating cost as well as the disposal of waste materials in nuclear power plants is lower than that of almost all fossil fuel competitors (Economics).Many factors contribute to the cost of a nuclear facility, such as if the project is completed on time and whether or not interest charges are applied during construction. The length of a project varies by country. Asia's last two reactors that were built in 1992, were completed in four years while the newer South Korean reactors took an average of fifty-one months (Economics). This variation in the time it took to build these reactors suggests that they can be built quicker, which lowers the initial cost of building the facilities.The disposal of nuclear waste produced by nuclear fission has become a cause of concern after the Chernobyl accident. According to the World Nuclear Association, ninety-seven percent of the waste material produced is categorized as low or intermediate-level waste. In France, where fuel is reprocessed, radioactive material is classified as high-level waste (HLW) in only two-tenths of one percent of the material produced. After forty years, according to the World Nuclear Association, the radioactivity of HLW is about one thousandth of what is was before the process of nuclear fission. This information implies that the majority of the radioactive material produced by the power plants does not require shielding as the radioactivity of the material is low (Classifications). Countries such as Sweden, France, Finland and the USA all have well advanced projects to store HLW. This includes appropriate protection protocols to ensure that nuclear material stays in the hands of trained professionals.The World Nuclear Association was used to provide the information on the disposal of nuclear material as well as the information on the types and amounts of radioactive material released by nuclear power generation. The information provided by the source strengthens the argument because a majority of radioactive material produced by nuclear power plants is classified as low and intermediate level radioactive material. The dangers of radioactive waste classified as high-level is argued by fossil fuel advocates as a main reason why nuclear power generation is not a viable option for power generation. This strengthens the argument because low an intermediate level radioactive material does not require shielding during normal handling (Classifications). Because a majority of the waste produced by nuclear power plants is not classified as HLW, the validity of the argument is minimized.While some bias is present, the information is well researched and displays a wide range of knowledge.An argument in support of using fossil fuels is their availability. According to the Institute of Energy Research, fossil fuels supply Japan with eighty-four percent and the United States of America with eighty-one percent of their national energy demand (History). The majority of fossil fuels burned today are natural gas, oil and coal (Fossil). Fossil fuels can be found in practically every part of the world, something that cannot be said about plutonium, which is used to power nuclear power plants (Gemma).Globally, an argument made is the economic benefits of fossil fuels. According to the U.S Department of Energy, six million four hundred thousand Americans are employed in the exploration, extraction and transportation of fossil fuels (Fossil). The world has relied on fossil fuels as a main source of energy since the eighteenth century during the industrial revolution (History). This prolonged amount of time has allowed the fossil fuel industry to become efficient. New facilities can be built with minimal innovation and processes of extraction and transportation have been perfected. Coal can be transported by trucks over short distances and by trains and barges over longer distances (Coal). International trading companies ensure that trading between countries is efficient (Coal).Another argument in favor of using fossil fuels as a country's main source of energy is improvements that have resulted in the reduction of environmental effects the operations have. In 2014, the World Coal Association released a document outlining their plans to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by two to three percent with the implementation of more effective plants (Platform). The average plant runs at a thirty-five percent efficiency and with the improvements that could be made, plants could run at forty-five percent efficiency (Platform).The Energy Policy Act (EPA) was passed in 2005 in the United States. The EPA guaranteed that companies who developed and used innovative technologies that aided in the emissions of greenhouse gases would receive loans for their efforts to try and lessen the effect energy production has on the environment (Summary). This law strengthens the argument that the fossil fuel industry has made efforts to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.The World Coal Association was used to find information about international trade and transportation of coal as well as the information regarding the document released in 2014. The source strengthened the argument that the transportation of fossil fuels is efficient and that the industry has made great strides in trying to diminish their carbon footprint by mentioning the Energy Policy Act and the document released in 2014. Some bias was present in the article as it was written by the World Coal Association detailing the coal industry's plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.After thorough research and evaluation of both sides of the argument for the question, Should nuclear power generation be a country's main source of energy, I have decided that nuclear power generation is a viable source of energy and should be a country's main source of energy. The argument that the nuclear power facilities cost too much to build is nullified by the argument that they are relatively cheap to maintain and maintenance. In addition to this, the positive environmental effect nuclear power facilities could have on countries with poor air quality is convincing. The argument about the possible dangers of nuclear material is also minimized in importance as ninety-seven percent of nuclear waste is classified as low-level waste (Radioactive).Nonetheless, it must be acknowledged that the topic if nuclear power generation encompasses many different aspects that were not discussed in this paper. Further research regarding the air quality of the areas surrounding fossil fuel and nuclear power plants would be beneficial in the continuation of this paper. An addition of case studies regarding the air quality as well as the environmental status of the areas around fossil and nuclear plants would also be beneficial in further understanding the differences nuclear and fossil fuel plants impose on the air quality of the surrounding area.

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Drones and its Effect on the Society

Abstract

The purpose of this document is to research on drones and its effect on the society. Drone is one of the major benefits to the smart city such as providing wireless access to mobile hotspots, contributing to safe infrastructure maintenance, helping save lives, and surveying the damage of natural disasters. There are also negative impacts on the society, where the drone can be used for the malicious purpose such as stealing people information, invasion of privacy, vulnerabilities of the drone, and spying. In addition, this paper will discuss the vulnerabilities issues of the AR. Drone 2.0.

Introduction

Over the last 10 years, drones and their technology have continued to grow at a rapid pace. Once only used for the military, drones have now worked their way into everyday civilian use. With this boom in use, there comes a lot of advantages, but also a lot of security issues that have arisen. Some of the great breakouts uses for drones can include hotspots for wifi, allowing law enforcement to survey lands and help find survivors in natural disasters, and helping inspect the undersides of bridges and skyscrapers for maintenance. The disadvantages of drones can include their vulnerabilities, their invasion of privacy, how they can be used to collect data and how they can be used to create a backdoor into wireless networks. In this paper, we will explore the advantages and disadvantages of drones in a rapidly changing tech world.

Advantages:

There are a lot of advantages that drones can bring to everyday life. For example, helping with mobile hotspots. When it comes to internet access, Americans probably don't think about being without it because it is so widely spread. This is very different for troops fighting overseas. Internet access can mean the difference between making it out alive or a huge tragedy. To solve this problem, The Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) created a program that helps turn small drones into flying wireless hubs. There was a challenge in creating wireless equipment that could fit on a drone, but DARPA has been able to develop small antennas than can operate on a high frequency waveband and amplifiers that can boost the signal (Peck). Because of these advancements, troops are now able to communicate distress.

Another advantage of drones comes from their ability to survey lands and their use in search rescues. Because a drone is able to fly in so many areas that are not easily accessible or dangerous for humans, they are extremely valuable. Not only they can survey damage, but they also eliminate any potential danger that a helicopter pilot might be placed in. Just last month, drones were able to survey the area affected by the Campfire in Northern California. Because of this families were able to see if their homes were safe or had been taken by the fire. Drones can also be used in rescue missions. The first drone water rescue that was documented took place off the coast of Australia. Two boys had gotten caught in a rip tide and were struggling to stay above water. Within two minutes, a drone was able to locate them and drop a flotation device in the water for them. They were then able to hold onto the flotation device and float to shore (Tucker). What could have been a tragic ending, was saved by a drone, however, there is also of disadvantages of using a drone.

Disadvantages:

One of the disadvantages of using drone is the security issues. The most commonly used civilian drone is the Parrot AR Drone 2, which has a lack of security protection. Most of the civilian doesn't know about the security issue of using the internet, such as drone is also used for malicious purposes. Almost all of the drone can be used with the wireless connection. Most of the civilian drone was operated at the root as a default, where it gives permission to access the secret or important files. Once the attacker has hacked into the root, the hacker can collect the important information and control the system. Especially during the communication process, there were lack of encrypted communications between the controller and the and the drone. The security level of the drone depends on cost, type of the controller, and the software of the controller.

Another disadvantage is the misuse of drones' vulnerabilities. Hackers can get control of drones to perform a malicious activity such as use malicious code to get information about the civilians that was recorded by the drone and control the drone to hack another device. For example, AR. Drone 2.0 is easily hacked using the Telnet server. The drone has unencrypted Wi-Fi hotspot set by default. By performing the port scan, the attacker can get to port 21 which is the FTP server that has the video and image files recorded by the drone. The FTP service is not password protected by which attackers get access to the drone's files. In addition, using a USB device, attackers can get the data or place the malicious file on the drone. The port scan also shows port 23 which is the Telnet Server offering a root shell. The root of the Telnet Server is also not password protected by which the attackers can get control over the drone. Attackers can perform malicious actions such as changing files, stealing data and deleting data on the drone. In addition, attackers can backdoor using the file system after getting the access once to the drone.

In addition, drones can be also used for spying. Drones can go any place and follow the civilian easily. The attackers can record all of the activity of the person. In addition, the spy can get important information of the person. And this violates the privacy law. Nowadays, there are many drones out there spying around others. This can cause many problems for the innocent civilians. Since, drones are only restricted on some areas. Therefore, drones can be threatful for the civilians who are under the watch of bad actors.

Lastly, using drone caused the invasion of privacy. Drones build with a camera that used to capture all of civilians and business properties. This was one of the main concern about the violation of privacy. For example, UAV was a type of drone that provided by the federal government. The main purposes of UAV were searching and rescuing civilians. There was one incident that related to UAV, where a person flew the UAV around the slaughterhouse. The UAV capture all the activities; such as the slaughter house's pipe went into the river. It caused environmental issues. Not only it had been reported to the government, but the photos of the oversight had also been posted online. This caused a lot of damages to the company. This incident had shown the violation of using drones because it invaded the private property. After the incident, the supreme court enforced the rule, where a warrant needed before using the drone.

The AR. Drone 2.0 Vulnerabilities

The attackers can get the control of the AR. Drone 2.0 by telnet, FTP, control ports, and use a combination of attacks.

Telnet

Using the Nmap command, the attacker can scan all of the ports number running on the AR. Drone 2.0. For this case, the port number for telnet is 23. The Telnet server has the root shell, which gives the attacker full access to the drone system. The attacker can attack other device with the drone since the drone runs on Linux machine which is same as attacking someone using a PC.

FTP

FTP port number also found using the Nmap command. The FTP server has the videos and image files stored on the drone. FTP servers are also not password protected by which the attackers can get access to the subdirectory of the drone. Using the USB device connection, the attacker can export the files, or they can also place malicious files on the drone. Because the USB drive directed to the data file directory and private data stored while the USB is connected. Also, the data is visible to anyone connected to the FTP server. In addition, using filesystem the attackers can backdoor to perform malicious activities.

Control ports

After getting to the root shell of the drone, the attackers can control the drone from other devices like PC and smartphone app. This allows the attacker to eavesdrop live video recording or interrupt the drone operations.

Solution

The AR. Drone 2.0 vulnerabilities can be secured by securing the Wi-Fi connection or by using a secured Network. The drone has unencrypted Wi-Fi, which needs to be password protected, so that others can not get control of the drone. Using a secured network by connecting the drone to external network, can also get rid of the vulnerabilities because it is encrypted and secured.

Drone Attack Incidents

There are many incidents caused by drones. Some main incidents caused by drones are the drone crash near the White House on 01/26/2015, Venezuela drone attack on 08/05/2016, and hacker sold Stolen U.S. Military Drone Documents on Dark Web for just $200 on 07/11/018.

The Drone crash near the White House

On January 26, 2015, a drone was found near the White House. After investigation, the drone was found not harmful. But from this incident, some questions were raised about the drones threats

Venezuela drone attack

Another incident, On August 5, 2018, Nicolas Maduro, the President of Venezuela, he was giving a speech at an outdoor event in Caracas. During the speech, a drone unexpectedly came and exploded. According to investigators, the drone was sent to attack the president.

Hacker sold stolen U.S. Military drone documents on dark web for just $200

According to cybersecurity researchers, U.S military drone documents were stolen by a hacker. The documents were sold on the dark web for 200 dollars. The information was about a drone that is used on by the U.S military. With the information, the drone could be easily hacked which could have leaked sensitive information and could create a threat to the country.

Conclusion

As a result, there are both advantages and disadvantages of using drones. Drones have been using for many good purposes for society; however, drones cause a lot of security issues because of their vulnerabilities. There are many drones like the AR. Drone 2.0 with vulnerabilities. The AR. Drone 2.0 lack security due to using unsecured Wi-Fi connection by which attackers can get control of the drone easily. This problem can be fixed easily by using secured network. To mitigate the hacking into the drone system, the company must provide a high level of security to all types of drones and make sure to update the system of the controller. The governments must provide the proper warrant and don't use on the private property with the consents.

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Are Drones Domestically Used a Breach of Privacy

Picture that you are perched on your patio enjoying a beautiful day, and a drone passes overhead. It lingers. The camera adjusts and looks directly at you. Then it flies out. You are left questioning who is running it and why they would fly it over your house. If those pictures or footage from the drone trip were to be released or posted online (, e.g., on Facebook, Instagram or Snapchat) without permission, that could be a breach of your privacy. If it is likewise related with some message about you that is wrong, you might be capable to sue for slander.

On a number of occasions, same encounters with unidentified drones have led to visceral (sometimes still intense) responses from the individuals. Maybe the most notorious case is William Meredith, the self-proclaimed drone killer who shot down the drone that flew around his house in Kentucky where his young kids were playing. The Kentucky court ignored the request of first-degree endangerment and vicious mischief against Meredith, stating that he had the right to take down the drone to defend his privacy. But this development of smaller drones has led to louder cries involving people's privacy rights. What is there to ensure the drone is not spying on somebody at their house?

While these reasons make drones seem undesirable, there are also uses for these flying robots that are not considered malicious intent. While still considering the domestic utilization of drones, one must cerebrate about the photography aspect. Drones are incredible for getting dazzling shots or recordings of scenes and structures, they can likewise be valuable for amatuer motion picture making.

While the discussion about drones and privacy is still being debated, David Wright (2012 ) makes the point that while drones may be helpful, it is more important to give privacy to individuals. Privacy is the great concern because of the fact that drones are aiming their surveillance upon these already marginalised populations to observe their whereabouts and actions (Wright 2012, 194 ).

Doubts about drones in federal wilderness are still more complex. Not just are there safe, secrecy, and First statement fears, but there are doubts about how drones jibe with those authorised usage of these kingdoms, which includes maintaining solitude for visitors and protecting wildlife from unnecessary harassment. Drones have also been deployed at countries deemed possibly dangerous, e.g., urban areas and near airports. Roger Clark (2014 ) states that dronings exist actively antagonistic to people's secrecy. He compares the usage of drones to multiple deep invasive terrorist acts into physical space, and is similar to haunting (Clark 2014, 289) . Clark talks about the origin of the language surveillance and the history behind its usage to observe specific behaviour and describe people of interest (Clark 2014, 288) .

At every case surveillance has been used to declare some sort of authority against citizens. However while the FAA starts to loosen its regulations, some states and municipalities are tightening theirs. Polls reveal a profound public interest at the privacy breaches of drones. Some cities have banned them entirely, albeit likely temporarily. One Colorado town is thinking allowing locals to take drones from the sky, and may provide advantages for reclaiming their components. [1] Topics associated with congestion, privacy, and sound also all help from the increased number of drone centers. Drones delivering software can go from, and move to, their drone area. Implying that parts of the city near the delivery centre should have more drone activity overhead than those far from one. However, issuing more drone centers means that drones would move around fewer parts of the city to complete their goals. Therefore limiting the amount of airspace they would cover.

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Drones and its Impact

The idea of utilizing unmanned lethal technology in warfare has been heavily debated for a number of reasons. As the newest way of fighting, drone warfare currently has little legal restrictions that dictate what a government can or cannot order their soldiers to do (Thompson). One of the most prominent debates revolves around the psychological effects drone warfare has. Drone warfare not only has a negative psychological effect on the drone pilots, it also holds a psychological impact on the everyday citizen who becomes witness to these drones (Owen). In order to determine the ethics of drone warfare, governments must also consider the psychological damages that this new technology can bring. If governments wish to incorporate drone warfare, they should also implement ways to control the psychological impacts this technology holds.

Despite drone warfare being considered new technology, many researchers have already conducted studies in regards to the psychological impacts. First of all, even the support personnel of the drone pilots, who do not kill the people they see on their screens, are psychologically affected by drone warfare (Otto). In theory, this should be a relatively easy task. They would not suffer from killing someone and they are still providing valuable information for the military. However, what should happen in theory does not. Though they are not killing anyone, these support personnel are forced to watch some of the most terrible things that can be done to another human being (Otto). In a survey conducted by the Air Force, they found that almost one in five of every drone operator has been witness to a rape in this year alone (Otto). For some, they have witnessed more than 100 different cases of a person being raped or killed (Otto). These factors lead to these support personnel having a greater chance of being diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (Thompson). In comparison to the 2.1% of non-intelligence support personnel who get PTSD, 2.5% of intelligence support personnel are clinically diagnosed with PTSD (Thompson). Despite this happening, the drone operators have no choice but to continue watching what is happening (Otto). As their job, it is their duty to keep watching as they continue to watch out for threats (Otto).

Next, drone warfare has lead to built up stress in the pilots. Despite working in the safety of a building, these pilots experience the same amount of stress that a regular soldier would. With only what they see on the screen as their guide, these pilots must determine whether they are attacking a group of terrorists or a group of innocents. After doing so, they are expected to return home unaffected by their previous actions. When the Air Force conducted the PCL-M, the military's test and evaluation for PTSD, they found that 1.6% of RPA operators experience a form of PTSD that could be considered an existential conflict (Chappelle). Because of all the guilt that is brought forth by their actions, drone pilots are much more susceptible to getting what is considered moral injuries (Chappelle). Those who get moral injuries have feelings of guilt, shame, anxiety, loss of self-worth, existential and spiritual issues, and questionings about their morality (Chappelle). These feelings end up bringing about devastating consequences. Similar to Vietnam War veterans, drone pilots also exhibit patterns in regards to emotional distress that is associated with their killings (Prince). With a higher frequency in killings, drone pilots become more susceptible to thoughts of suicide by two times in comparison to pilots that are considered to kill a moderate amount of people (Prince).

Not only can drone warfare cause post-traumatic stress disorder, it can also lead to mental fatigue. Chappelle, a psychologist specializing in military personnel, conducted a number of studies utilizing the Fatigue Scale, Fatigue Assessment Scale, Checklist Individual Strength Concentration Subscale, the World Health Organization Quality of Life Assessment Energy and Fatigue Subscale, and the Maslach Burnout Inventory Emotional Exhaustion Subscale in order to measure the fatigue experienced by drone operators. The tests showed that 53.6% of crew members in charge of artificial intelligence in warfare met the criteria for shift work sleep disorder (Chappelle). Shift work sleep disorder causes difficulties adjusting to a different sleep/wake schedule, which results in significant issues with falling asleep, staying asleep, and sleeping when desire (Chappelle). Not to mention, 51.5% of the tested drone operators were found to be above the cut-off of the Epworth Sleepiness Scale which measures how sleepy a person is during the daytime (Tvarynas). This fatigue leads to a higher possibility of work burnout. The Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey conducted four different studies in order to measure the possibility of job burnout in drone operators (Tvarynas). Three aspects of occupational burnout are explored with the MBI-GSs: cynical behavior, emotional exhaustion, and productiveness (Tvarynas). In these three studies, the survey found that of the drone pilots, 14-33% experience emotional exhaustion, 7-17% suffer from cynicism, 0-6% are below the diagnosed cut-off for occupational productiveness (Tvarynas).

Another psychological aspect that should be considered when determined the ethics of artificial intelligence in warfare is the effects on the innocents caught in the crossfires of combat engaged by drones. In countries such as Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan, citizens are becoming increasingly familiarized with the sound of a drone flying above (Owen). Using artificial intelligence to fight wars has brought up a considerable issue: artificial intelligence is unable to differentiate between enemies and innocents (Owen). These drones hover above the villages, infringing on their right to privacy and bringing with them a source of fear and lethality (Owen). In a study led by Stanford University and New York University researchers called Living Under Drones, citizens of the region of Waziristan confessed to living in constant fear of the buzzing above their heads (Owen). When hearing the drones in the sky, some of these citizens were prone to anxiety attacks and the majority of them suffered from insomnia (Owen). This constant fear disrupts their previous daily lives as well. Nearly all Waziristan children do not go to school and previous daily activities are avoided unless direly needed (Owen).

There are a number of variables that could have affected the results observed for the psychological effects of drone warfare. First of all, the number of available studies on this topic is incredibly limited. Drone operators are not permitted to reveal any information of their occupation unless they are revealing the details to someone with adequate security clearances. Thus, most studies are only conducted after being requested by the Air Force and still then the Air Force is in charge of the researchers, often employing the same researchers consecutively. Also, all the current available research concentrates only on a single person, instead of the group as a whole. Following the whole operations team in charge of drone warfare could provide a more clear understanding of how these psychological effects develop. Last of all, one limitation could be the language barrier between different countries. Other nations may have done studies on the topic, but these studies were not made available to this report in the form of English-language journals.

Despite the strategic advantages unmanned weaponry may bring, governments must take into consideration how this technology mentally affects not only the innocents caught in the warzone, but their own military personnel. Countries should begin to take action to create new policies that address the limits of using drones to prevent collateral casualties that lead to anxiety amongst the innocents. They should also ensure that the psychological needs of their soldiers are tended to, such as in the form increased accessibility of psychologists.

Work Cited

Chappelle, W., Goodman, T., Reardon, L., & Thompson, W. (2014). An analysis of posttraumatic stress symptoms in United States Air Force drone operators. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28, 480-487. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.05.003.
Chappelle, W., McDonald, K., Prince, L., Goodman, T., Ray-Sannerud, B. N., & Thompson, W. (2014a). Assessment of occupational burnout in United States Air Force Predator/Reaper drone operators. Military Psychology, 26(5-6):376-385. doi: 10.1037/mil0000046.
Chappelle, W. L., McDonald, K. D., Prince, L., Goodman, T., Ray-Sannerud, B. N., Thompson, W. (2014b). Symptoms of psychological distress and post-traumatic stress disorder in United States Air Force drone operators. Military Medicine, 179(8S), 63-70. doi:10.7205/MILMED-D-13-00501.
Chappelle, W., McDonald, K., Thompson, B., & Swearengen, J. (2012). Prevalence of high emotional distress, symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in U. S. Air Force active duty remotely piloted aircraft operators (2010 USAFSAM survey results). Technical report, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks City-Base, Texas, December 2012.
Chappelle, W., Prince, L., Goodman, T., Thompson, W., Cowper, S., & Ray-Sannerud, B. (2014c). Occupational health screening of the virtual warrior: Distributed common ground system intelligence operators compared with non-combatant support personnel. Technical report, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks City-Base, Texas, February 2014. https://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA60
Chappelle, W., Salinas, A., & McDonald, K. (2011). Psychological health screening of USAF remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) operators and supporting units. Symposium on Mental Health and Well-Being Across the Military Spectrum, Bergen, Norway, 12 April 2011. https://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a582856.pdf
Chappelle, W., Swearingen, J., Goodman, T., Cowper, S., Prince, L., & Thompson, W. (2014). Occupational health screenings of US Air Force remotely piloted aircraft (Drone) operators. Technical report, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks City-Base, Texas, April 2014. https://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA60
Otto, J. L., & Webber, B.J. (2013). Mental health diagnoses and counseling among pilots of remotely piloted aircraft in the United States Air Force. MSMR,20(3), 3-8.
Ouma, J. A., Chappelle, W. L., & Salinas, A. (2011). Facets of occupational burnout among US Air Force active duty and National Guard/Reserve MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper operators. Technical report, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks City-Base, Texas, June 2011. https://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA54
Owen, Taylor. Drones Don't Just Kill. Their Psychological Effects are Creating Enemies. The Globe and Mail. 8 April 2018. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/drones-dont-just-kill-their-psychological-effects-are-creating-enemies/article9707992/
Prince, L., Chappelle, W., McDonald, K., & Goodman, T. (2012). Main sources of occupational stress and symptoms of burnout, clinical distress, and post-traumatic stress among Distributed Common Ground System intelligence exploitation operators (2011 USAFSAM survey results). Technical report, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks City-Base, Texas, September 2012. https://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA57
Prince, L., Chappelle, W.L., McDonald, K.D., Goodman, T., Cowper, S., & Thompson, W. (2015). Reassessment of psychological distress and post-traumatic stress disorder in SR of military drone operators. United States Air Force distributed common ground system operators. Military Medicine,180(3S), 171-178. doi:10.7205/MILMED-D-14-00397.
Thompson, W. T., Lopez, N., Hickey, P., DaLuz, C., Caldwell, J. L., & Tvaryanas, A. P. (2006). Effects of shift work and sustained operations: Operator performance in remotely piloted aircraft (OP-REPAIR). Technical Report, Air Force Research Laboratory, Brooks City-Base, Texas, January 2006. https://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA44 3145
Tvaryanas, A. P., & MacPherson, G.D. (2009). Fatigue in pilots of remotely piloted aircraft before and after shift work adjustment. Aviation, Space, Environmental Medicine,80(5), 454-461. doi:10.3357/ASEM.2455.2009
Tvaryanas, A. P., & Thompson, W. T. (2006). Fatigue in military aviation shift workers: Survey results for selected occupational groups. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 77(11), 1166-1170.

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A Research on Louisiana Purchase

America's Westward Expansion was a period between 1803 and 1890 whereby the United States erupted with growth. The primary focus of this expansion centers around the purchase of a Louisiana territory from the French Government by the president of 1803, President Thomas Jefferson. This purchase later became known as the Louisiana Purchase. Other factors such as the Manifest Destiny, slavery, the Mexican War, and the Compromise of 1850 would also later put their mark this historical event as well. This is how these factors eventually contributed to arguably one of the greatest eras of the United States.

The Louisiana Purchase (as mentioned before) was a purchase of a Louisiana territory from the French Government by the president of 1803, President Thomas. The land was bought by the president for fifteen million dollars and extended from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains as well from Canada to New Orleans which increased the size of America by a factor of two. Jefferson strongly and firmly believed that Westward Expansion was crucial to the nation's well being.1 He also believed that an independent and rectitude citizenry (the people of a location regarded mutually/ collectively) hinged on a republic to withstand to political turmoil and that that independence and rectitude tied in with ownership of land, primarily with that of homestead farms. America needed the keep expanding to meet the demand of land to support the exemplary population of rectitude or virtuous yeomen (a man having a small landed estate). Although Jefferson's plan of expanding west may have been an icon of the 19th century, it may ultimately be its downfall.

The second factor of America's Westward Expansion is the Manifest Destiny. Approximately seven million individuals (which is roughly forty percent of nation's population) were situated west of trans-Appalachian by 1840. The majority of these people previously vacated their eastern homes in hopes of a more economical future and soon related to the Westward movement, owning a lot of land, and prideful farming just like Thomas Jefferson. A dependently stable assembly of people began to take shape from huge numbers of European factory workers. In retrospect, the chance and hope of independence and a greater deal of mobility was offered by the westward movement in the United States. In fact, the Gadsden Purchase of 1853 incorporated roughly thirty thousand square mile of Mexican land to the United States. Many people were swayed into moving westward by a journalist by the name of John O'Sullivan in 1945 by the mark by which he engraved into the face of Westward Expansion. Sullivan enforced that moving westward was a crucial aspect of the republican ideologies and that it was America's' manifest destiny to move westward and to have, in procession, all the land which Province has given us.

The third factor, slavery, was questioned among early westward settlers. They wondered if slavery would be permitted in the growing western states. The Missouri Compromise aimed to answer this question in 1820 by allowing Missouri to join the union as a slave state whitest making Maine a free state which safeguarded the sensitive balance in the Congress. This compromise also demanded that slavery would be banned north of the southern edge of Missouri. It did not, however, pertain to developing territories which didn't associate with the Louisiana Purchase, thus, the problem of slavery lingered in the expanding nation. The economy in the south became more and more reliant on King Cotton2 and the indoctrinated labor which fueled it. During this time, an increasing number of Northern people began to speculate that the expansion of slavery violated their liberty which they owned, together as individuals (not represented by the pro-slavery Congress) and as yeomen farmers. They didn't oppose slavery per say, but rather opposed the way expansion appeared to intervene with their economic opportunities.

Many years since the Missouri Compromise, in spite of the conflict amounts growing sections, Americans continued to trek West. The Rockies to the Oregon Territory, owned by Great Britain, were hiked by countless numbers of people and countless more traveled into California, New Mexico, and even Texas which are all Mexican Territories at the time. American colonists in Texas became a part of their Tejano neighbors (Spanish-derived Texans) and gained independence from Mexico in 1837 and voted the join the United States as a state with slaves.

This, however, was bound to throw off the precise balance that the Missouri Compromise had accomplished. The united partnership of Texas with other Mexican Territories wasn't established as a political anchor until a visionary of westward expansion and planter of cotton, James Knox Polk, was elected in 1844. On February, 1846, Polk, alongside many of his allies, allowed Texas to unite with the Union as a state of slaves as Oregon became apart of the Union as a free state after a long discussion with Great Britain in June. Polk ignited a war against Mexico that same month, untruthfully asserting Mexico's army as having invaded our territory and shed American blood on American soil. This were ended up becoming widely unflavored among the Northerners partly because they opposed to what they have seen, a war which grew slavery. David Wilmot, a Pennsylvania Congressman, added a condition to the war-granting bill stating that slavery should never be allowed in any territories in Mexico which the United States may gain. Although Wilmot's condition did not go through Congress, it outlined America's most horrific, dividing acts, slavery.

The last factor of Westward expansion, the Compromise of 1850, begins when the Treaty of Guadalupe 3 which to an end to the Mexican War in 1848. This treaty added over a million square miles to the United States and was larger than the Louisiana Purchase. The procurement or addition of this section of fertile land brought back to life, the proposition which the Missouri Compromise had apparently closed: In new developing American territories, what would be the condition or state of slavery? Henry Clay, a senator from Kentucky, after two full years of constant bickering and liable debates over the topic of slavery, put into perspective, a new compromise. This new compromise was comprised of four sections total. First, California would join the Union as a free state; second, the conditions of slavery in the remaining Mexican territories would be told amongst the people situated there; third, the trading of slaves would be obliterated in Washington, D.C., and finally, a completely redesigned Fugitive Slave Act would allow Southerners to own runaway slaves who had left to Northern states were slavery was not permitted (or even needed).

King Cotton was phrase which was adapted and later commonly used by a Southern Politicians and authors before the American Civil War. This demonstrates the economical and political weight of cotton manufacturing. After the cotton gin, which helped pull cotton, was invented in 1793, cotton beat tobacco as the primary cash grabber in the southern agricultural economy and soon holding over half of the total Exports in the United States.

The Treaty of Guadalupe was a treaty between Mexico and the United States and was established on February 2nd, 1848 and officially ended the Mexican War. The treaty gets its name from the place where it was signed was Villa de Guadalupe Hidalgo which means Guadalupe Hidalgo town. Guadalupe Hidalgo was neighborhood north of Mexico City. This treaty was bought for fifteen million dollars to mark the line which divided Mexico from the United States at the Rio Grande and the Gilda River. This allowed American to gain up to five hundred and twenty five thousand additional square miles of fertile land from Mexico. In exchange, the United States agreed to pay off the more than three million dollar claim made by United States citizens opposing Mexico.

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The Louisiana Purchase: a Deal between the US and France

The Louisiana Purchase (1803) was a land deal between the United States and France, in which the U.S. acquired approximately 828,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River. The territory stretched from the Mississippi River to the west of the United States. It's southernmost tip was the city of New Orleans and the North included Minnesota, North Dakota, and Montana up to the border of Canada. Today, the land included in the purchase comprises about ? of the United States territory. The louisiana purchase is significant in American history because it helped the U.S. acquire almost half of the land we live on today and nearly doubled the size of the U.S. It also helped the U.S. because it helped them gain control of the Mississippi River.

The U.S. had been growing rapidly. In search of new land to plant crops and raise livestock. Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte was who sold the Louisiana property and he sold it because his attention was being consumed by the war and began to saw the territory as a burden. In 1803 Napoleon sold the territory. He decided to sell 828,000 square miles to the U.S. for the amazing price of 15 million U.S. dollars. At first Napoleon refused to sell. He had hopes of creating a massive empire that included the Americas. Soon, Napoleon began to have troubles in Europe and need money desperately and ended up selling the territory. Napoleon also didn't mind selling the land as he thought it would hurt his enemy, England. Thomas Jefferson The Louisiana purchase occurred during the third presidency of the United States, The president at this time was Thomas Jefferson. In 1803 the Louisiana purchase added Creoles and French settlers to the U.S. population.

The Louisiana purchase also re-ignited controversy over the spread of slavery in the U.S. The Louisiana purchase was a treaty. Why? Because the Constitution grants the president the power to negotiate treaties which is exactly what Thomas Jefferson did. Lewis and Clark Expedition The Louisiana territory was so big that Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark on an expedition to explore the newly bought territory. Tragedy; Slavery and the Civil War The issue of slavery in the Western land of the territory became a major issue in later years and part of the cause of the American Civil War.

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Thomas Jefferson and the Louisiana Purchase

President Thomas Jefferson expanded the bounds of his time as president and betrayed his republican tendencies by favoring desired results over executive self-control. Those that showed this viewpoint often brag their claim by pointing to Jefferson's own look on the matter, which held that the Louisiana Purchase was not allowed short of an amendment in the Constitution. But was the Louisiana Purchase truly going against something in the constitution? In 1803, Jefferson sent two very important figures, Robert Livingston and James Monroe to France to talk with them about the purchase of New Orleans. New Orleans was most desirable because it would allow easy ways to travel up the Mississippi River and the opportunity to expand in the west. This mission was so important to Jefferson that he said to Monroe All eyes, all hopes, are now fixed on you, for on the event of this mission depends the future destinies of this republic.

Jefferson's management was shocked when Napoleon Bonaparte offered all of the land of Louisiana to the U.S rather than New Orleans. Seeing the area as wrong and meaningless in comparison to France's war with Britian, Napoleon's offer would give up Louisiana for 15 million dollars. After agreeing to terms with Napoleon, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, the peacekeepers sent word of this amazing deal they just struck to the White House. Receiving Louisiana for such a low price seemed like a miracle gift for the U.S. Jefferson didn't think it was constitutional. Jefferson very firmly maintained the government didn't have the power to buy foreign territory even though he wanted to buy it.

However, he admitted that there was a fix available to legalize the Louisiana Purchase by way of adding a constitutional amendment. Jefferson sent a change to the congress that said: Louisiana, as given up by France to the United States is now the United States territory. Its white residents will be citizens and stand, as to their rights and duties, on the same footing with other citizens of the U.S in the same situations. Saved as only a portion of it lying north of an east and west line drawn through the Arkansas River, no state will be established or make money off the land other than Indians in exchange for equal amounts of land occupied by them, until authorized by further change to the Constitution will be made for these purposes. Jefferson thought that the United States did not have the power of holding foreign land and so a change to the Constitution seemed necessary to buy the area. Several of Jefferson's cabinet members wrote letters that gave a good reason for the treaty on constitutional grounds, and did not agree with Jefferson. As Jefferson remained unwilling to accept the treaty short of the addition, James Monroe made steps to convince Jefferson to drop his objections and accept the treaty. The chief leaders working against the diplomats at this time and after receiving cross continental warnings, Madison became concerned that Napoleon might go back on his word. Unfortunately, the process through which a change to the Constitution was approved was completely opposite to the interests of the hurrying. Even the Bill of Rights in 1791 took over two years to get approved by the states, and the fast mobilization of the states to accept the change couldn't be promised that something will happen.

In the end, Thomas Jefferson agreed with his cabinet and James Madison, hoping that the treaty's benefits are worth it in the end. Just as he did this some Congress members launched a campaign to deliberately destroy the deal. Some alleged that Louisiana belonged to Spain instead of France, but these concerns were calmed when records proved the recent transition between the two. Believing that Louisiana would reduce the power of New England and Massachusetts, Senator Timothy Pickering suggested that his state should break off from the union if Louisiana were bought. Senator James Hillhouse from Connecticut joined, declaring that the eastern states must and will end the union and form a separate government. Even though the senate made anti treaty rumblings from New England, most of the senate thought the treaty was agreeing with the Constitution. The body agreed to approve it by a large margin of 24 to 7 and the treaty started to take affect legally. Among those in favor James Randolph from Roanoke, who would later split with Jefferson over perceived the treaty's wrong actions. Doubling the size of the country for three cents per acre.

The federal government often started bad behavior even during the first Congress that interfered with the original plan of the Constitution. Under the Constitution the president has the power to make treaties with the advice and permission of the senate. Working out this power demands a dividing line of two thirds of the senators vote to put any treaty into legal affect. When the Constitution was approved in the 18th century, four types of treaties were common: treaties of friendly partnership, peace, commerce, and land purchase. During the approval campaign in the states the treaty making power was often described in terms that included all types of agreements between countries, but several federalists suggested that the same power held in England by the king would be divided in the U.S. by the president and senate. Of course treaties get land from foreign countries were within the extent of this power.

In 1795, the treaty of Basal saw the transition of many areas of land between kingdoms in Europe, a result of the French Revolutionary Wars. Just years before the Purchase, Louisiana was sold to France by Spain in 1800. Each of these land based exchanges were proper under and understanding of the treaty's power as it was related to the laws of nation a set of legal normal behaviors that were accepted greatly. As treasury secretary Albert Gallatin wrote The existence of the U.S. as a nation believes the power enjoyed by every nation of extending their territory by agreements between countries and the power given to the president and senate of making treaties selects the organ through the purchase may be made. Why was an agreement to buy the city of New Orleans was not considered a constitutional deed by Jefferson? Jefferson did not show any constitutional doubts to buy New Orleans before the offer to buy all of Louisiana came up. He never defined a difference between the two, though land treaties were permitted by the Constitution it seemed obvious that it was a constitutional act before Jefferson ever said anything about it.

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How the Post Treatment of Muslims is a Witch Hunt

Studies show every one in twenty-five defendants who are sentenced to death in the United States are later found innocent (Gross). Many people are wrongfully accused. Throughout history, groups of people are targeted with inaccurate information and are accused of crimes they did not commit. This is called a witch hunt. After 9/11, Muslims lives are a constant witch hunt in the United States. Muslims experience hate crimes, public humiliation, and constant investigation after the 9/11 attacks.

Muslims have, and still, experience hate crimes from other religions and ethnicities. On September 19, 2008, two non-Muslim Americans were arrested for repeatedly vandalizing and damaging cars parked outside of a Muslims house. They broke windows, windshields, and the metal bodies of the cars (US Newswire). Also, in January 2017, another hate crime was committed. A man was arrested for robbing a mosque, the house of worship for Muslims, and setting it on fire. One of the members of the mosque, Abe Ajrami said, I hope people understand that this is not something we watch on TV or read in the newspaper. This is something we live daily (Suhay). Statistics show, in 2000, before 9/11, there were twelve reported assaults against Muslims in America. In the year 2016, post 9/11, there were 127 (Kishi). Muslims do not deserve all the hate they receive.

Not only do Muslims experience hate crimes, but they also deal with public humiliation. In a Chicago grocery store in 2009, a white woman pulled down a Muslim woman's hijab (headscarf) and muttered something about the shootings in Texas, assuming her religion had something to do with them. Another incident is a Muslim was harassed by a security guard in a bank in Illinois. Muslims also have special screenings in airports and are checked more closely. Also, during the 2008 presidential elections, Americans were uneasy when they heard Barack Obama could have been Muslim, showing how prejudice Americans are towards them (Williams). Public humiliation shouldn't be a struggle for Muslims in their own country.

Another way Muslims lives are a witch hunt, is their lives are constantly investigated. The NYPD spied on Muslims in New York, and throughout surrounding schools, colleges, and communities after 9/11. Also, in New Jersey, the NYPD visited mosques, schools, and Muslim owned restaurants and shops, collecting information. The NYPD took pictures and videos of the Muslims everyday lives, making sure they were not doing anything suspicious (CNN Wire). Throughout the United States, Muslims fear their sermons and discussions at mosques are monitored and surveillance (Williams). Overall, Muslims have to live in fear from the constant investigation.

In conclusion, post 9/11 treatment of Muslims is a witch hunt because of hate crimes, public humiliation, and constant investigation throughout their lives. The Muslims are presumed guilty for things they did not do and could not control. There have been many witch hunts throughout the world over many decades including the Holocaust, the Salem witch hunt, and McCarthyism. Could there be more in the future?

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Role of Osama and Al-Qaeda in 9/11

The passengers of American Airlines flights 11 and 77, and United Airlines flights 93 and 175 probably thought that their morning flight would be ordinary, but they were entirely wrong. They were unaware of the 19 terrorists on those four flights, who were planning to hijack the planes and crash into specific locations. This event has left a scar on American society even today, including the way we view the world around us. Many consequences have happened because of 9/11, including bias toward immigrants and Muslims in general. What lead Al-Qaeda to attack the United States in such a way? What influenced Osama to create the terrorist group? Finally, What precautions has the United States taken and has not taken yet to ensure the citizens of America that another 9/11 terrorist attack will never happen again. Fully understanding these points will help America understand what exactly led up to the attack, why the terrorists chose to attack those specific areas, and how they are able to prevent another attack before they even plan it. Obviously, anyone able to read this paper is aware of what happened on September 11, 2001, but let me give you a brief recap. September 11 was a nice and sunny day, but on the East Coast, a group of 19 terrorists planned to ruin it. At approximately 8:46 AM, the first plane struck the World Trade Center's North Tower, and soon the rest of the planes followed to hit the South Tower and the Pentagon. The fourth plane crash landed in a field in Somerset County, Pennsylvania after the brave passengers of Flight 93 gathered up the courage to revolt against their attackers and gave the terrorists on board no option but to crash land. Around 3,000 people died and the effects of their deaths still resonate with us today.

One of Donald Trump's first acts as president was to pass Executive Order 13769, better known as a travel ban on seven Muslim-majority countries (Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, and Yemen). The muslim travel ban caused over 700 travellers to be detained and 60,000 visas to be revoked. The order led to public outrage and protests, calling the order and the support it got from Congress acts of racism. This is just one of the more recent effects of 9/11 and how it has changed our society. Another even more recent event was the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting I mentioned above. On a more positive note, airlines have now increased security on flights, including an increased amount of air marshals.

Americans who lived through 9/11 first-hand or who are even learning of it in their history class need to be aware of why Al-Qaeda decided to attack America in the first place. Uneducated folks, who are relying on conspiracy theories or fake news to get their information about Muslims need to formally be educated. Muslims are not afraid of us or jealous of our democracy and our freedom. They are completely happy with how the world works in the Middle East. Let's take Osama and his visit to Beirut, Lebanon. He, like many Muslims, was a conservative man who believed women should not show much skin and etc. and his visit to Beirut was similar to a visit to America. He saw women dressing in shorts and tank tops, the more modernized and westernized style of Beirut offended him and made the West seem like a plague of sin spreading throughout Islam's holy lands.

Before I continue with Osama Bin-Laden, I'd have to speak about another Muslim who believed that Western culture was a plague. Sayyid Qutb was an Egyptian man and a leading member of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. Qutb visited America in 1949 to study abroad. During his trip Qutb found many problems with America's modernized sports and activities such as football or boxing. He thought that Americans were selfish and only cared for materialistic things. Qutb also did not like how women danced as he saw it to provoke sexuality or how Americans caring for clothing was selfish. The ironic thing is that Egypt saw he was becoming radical, so they decided to send him to America, but instead he became even more radical and saw America as an even greater evil. His criticism of some Egyptians who accepted American culture, such Gamal Abdel Nasser, former president of Egypt, eventually led to his doom. Qutb was captured and tortured in inhumane ways such as covering literally feeding him to man-eating dogs. All of the torture techniques Nasser and his men used on Qutb and other radicals were taught by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (C.I.A). Back to my main man Osama, Qutb really influenced Osama in a similar way Beirut did, they both saw things wrong with the world and sought to correct it.

Osama was a middle child, honestly I don't know what to call him. His parents had 22 kids. Anyways, it's getting really late so I'm trying to finish this paper. Osama was born into a wealthy family and grew up knowing the right people. Osama was given an offer to study abroad at a top of the line school, but he decided to stay in Saudi, showing his dedication to the study of Islam. Fast-tracking to Osama's experience in Beirut, most conservatives believed sinners should be punished, just like Christians believes sinners will go to hell without asking for forgiveness.

Ironically, Lebanon was plunged into a civil war which was believed to be Allah's way of punishing sinners in Beirut, but what influenced Al-Qaeda to attack the United States?

Of course, the influence of Osama and his wealth led to him gathering a following, and his following began to listen to his personal beliefs. His following led to more radicals joining his cause and growing into a large group. What created these radicals though? Were they just born hating America, or did they learn their hate from first hand experience? Let's look back at the Soviet-Afghan War, during the Cold War. The Soviets were trying to take Afghanistan, and the Muslims saw the Soviets were atheists trying to take their land. While Afghanistan was being helped by America during the war, Osama felt America was doing this to instead take control of the land themselves. America had no business butting in the war like that, especially with hidden purposes like that. Osama probably believed that America was overdue for a punishment for their sins, and he decided to take it in his own hands.

Osama and Al-Qaeda could be compared to a giant Jenga tower in which America is grabbing more blocks and adding to the top, eventually leading to the fall of the tower, both literally and figuratively. Muslims in the Middle East don't hate America for our freedom -- it's ignorant to think so -- but they hate us because we meddle in their affairs.

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September 11 and Role of Media

Media helped to make the differences in these memories not so different as their individual memories were influenced as they discovered more information from the media. Robert continued in saying, when I was finally able to go back to New York City, a city I had loved all my life, I have an image in my head that I will never get out. The towers weren't there anymore, it was a painful thing to see, it was a frightening thing to see, and it was an awing thing to see. You know you hear people say 'I can't believe my eyes', well that was certainly one of those days. Something I had looked up to and wanted to work in all my life, was suddenly gone (Taddeo, Robert). These images that the media displayed repetitively as a way to remember the devastation, individuals had seen up close and personal. For them, the medias repetition triggered their individual memories, some more extreme than others ranging from triggering severe PTSD or the mere recollection of the events that have impacted their life. The media caused those individual memories to be heightened by the constant repetition of the suffering they endured that day by the media. The September 11 terrorist attacks were one of the most memorable events in United States history due to the fact that it was one of the most documented events, as professional news crews, filmmakers, videographers, and photographers stood in the middle of the chaos to catch documentation of the event in the evolving media age. In a survey that asked Americans, aged 18 and older, to name the top ten events they believed impacted America within their lifetime, 76 percent of all Americans named 9/11 as one of the most significant (Wilkinson, James).

The overwhelming amount of media coverage surrounding the attacks created a generated a sense of national unity as people were glued to the visual images of the crashing planes and huge dark clouds of smoke that took over the television networks. The media broadcasting of the events unified the memories of the public as millions watched the same videos and heard the same stories, which become ingrained in their memory. The intense media broadcastings have become so entrenched in the minds of the American people that it still resonates with them as one of the most impactful events in U.S. history. For those who actually witnessed the event, these traumatizing images will be forever ingrained into their memory as they deal with the nightmares and psychological trauma for years to follow. However, thanks to the media, those who weren't physically there can still have those haunting images ingrained into their memory as if they were there. The September 11 terrorist attacks led to a disperse of shocking global media events that dominated public attention and provoked reams of discourse, reflection, and writing (Kellner, Douglas).

The media gave the public the idea that they witnessed these events, when in reality they learned about it through television. The fact the public learned about the attacks through the media have shaped the way the event has been perceived. The images and discourses of television networks framed the 9/11 attacks to stir up war hysteria, while they carefully planned and executed media spectacles. The mass media coverage of the attacks allowed those who were glued to their television screens to have the I was there kind of feeling. This is extremely powerful in how the remembrance of the event was shaped. Kellner argues that the media spectacles that came after the attacks were intended to terrorize the US, attack symbolic targets, unfold a terror spectacle, as well as to undermine the U.S. and global economy (Kellner, Douglas).

The media utilized the dramatic images to grab the nation's attention, as people couldn't take their eyes off their television screens, thus creating widespread panic. No matter where you were during the attack, the images of the buildings bursting into flames and crumbling to the ground, people jumping out the windows as their only hope of survival, and chaos around the city created a sense of fear throughout the nation. The media contributed to the growing fear that no one was safe, as the nation could be subject to another attack anywhere at any time. The media greatly dramatized the attacks as they replayed images over and over and overemphasized the events. As time went on after, by still broadcasting the traumatizing images over and over again, the media contributed to the formation of the collective memory of 9/11 as those who weren't there were able to have these powerful images resonating in their mind for years to come as if they were there. The media coverage of the September 11 attacks consisted of mostly televised media, which promoted a dramatic emotional response throughout the United States. The fact that the attack was broadcasted live in real time where people could visually see the destruction with their own eye's triggered fear. Televised media coverage is a hotter form than printed media because it engages more of the public's senses, which requires much less thought and imagination about the event because the events are being portrayed right in front of you (Mitnik, 11).

Having read about the attack in a news article would have still caused concern from the public, but seeing the events unfold in real time on television had a much stronger immediate impact on the public's reaction. The televised media coverage is really what instilled mass panic spreading across the nation as it promoted fear of terrorism. The media delivered the message that the United States was under attack and that the American public should be afraid. The mass amount of televised media coverage surrounding the 9/11 terrorist attacks contributed to the formation of collective memory of the event as it led to a universal fear of terrorism and feelings of vulnerability. While some had the unfortunate opportunity of directly experiencing the attack first hand, the rest of the public experienced it indirectly through the media coverage. As a result, the media stirred up reactions from the public as they watched the events unfold on television. The overwhelming amount of fear caused by the media portrayal of the attacks instilled chaos and concern for the fundamentals of American society. In an interview, Robert tells how Seeing the repeating photos of the devastation and catastrophic events, and the constant mention of the terrorist activities instilled the idea that there could be more to come, it was an alarming and frightening thing, so it impacted my day to day life for a while (Taddeo, Robert).

The media instilled a type of fear in Americans that impacted their everyday life. For many, it served as a wakeup call that the United States isn't such a glorified, protected bubble and that anything can happen at any time. Rather than forming their own beliefs about the event, the media told the public that they should be scared, and they should go about life differently. This caused a disruption of American lives and threatened American institutions. The media served as the communication of individual memories of the attacks to the public which then led to the creation of the collective memory of the tragic events that occurred. Typically, media outlets all have differing opinions as they all represent conflicting political and personal viewpoints but in this case all of the networks were in unison, as they delivered the facts of the event to the public. For once, the networks were not focused on competing with one another. Rather, they were focused on getting their facts right. For example, for CBS News it didn't matter to the CBS organization if they were first to report news, but instead CBS was concerned only with getting the story right (Nisbet, Matt).

Usually, all of the networks are focused on competing to get the story out first but such a tragic attack on the nation actually unified the networks, which does not happen often. CBS even revealed that the news organizations were sharing footage of the events with each other (Nisbet, Matt). News networks rarely share their information with competing networks because they all want to have the exclusive story. In this case, the reporters were Americans too and they did not care about fighting for the story exclusives. They were able to put their competition aside and focus on making sure that the public was informed about what was going on by reporting accurate facts and stories. As a result, the public remembered the events the same because millions of people watched the same information covered on varying media networks. Rather then their memory being skewed based on what media outlet they chose to receive their information from, everyone was given the same information. Robert tells his memory of the media coverage as being very unified and informative. No matter what media outlet you were watching, there were no opinions involved it was just showing what was going on with the goal of relaying information to the people (Taddeo, Robert).

This was a very rare site to see with the different media outlets. Even with big events that capture the whole nation like this, the outlets tend to differ based on their political views and opinions. But, with such a tragic event they were American citizens first this time and reporters second, as they were just as scared and eager to find out more information as the rest of the public. Covering this event was an extremely important task for media outlets because they served as the direct form of communication to the public. The public formed a collective memory based of the information that the media outlets gave them, which was unified by the media outlets reporting in unity. Although the attacks created mass devastation, the media coverage eventually led to an immense amount of patriotism and unity across the United States. In the weeks following, the public was in agreement that the groups that were held responsible for the terrorist attacks were a common enemy. After the initial shock began to wear off, Many Americans reacted to the assaults with a renewed and aggressive patriotism, which included displaying the flag, but with deeper manifestations, which was showcased all over the media networks (Jameson, John). At this time, media outlets began to unify the United States as people started to make sense of what had happened. It became clear that the people of the United States were not going to let those held responsible take away the spirit and pride of Americans. In an editorial in the Chillicothe (Ohio) Star, about a year after the attacks, 9/11 was described as the day that America discovered itself. How strong and united a great people can be when confronted with great evil and put to the ultimate test of survival (Jameson, John).

The relentless media coverage of the attacks created an important cultural meaning for the nation, as it led to 9/11 becoming a major part of the background behind the culture of the United States. The initial response of the public was fear, but as time went on the fear died down and the feelings of anger and rage toward those held responsible were fueled. As a result, the media links the collective memory of 9/11 to an instilled sense of patriotism. The media also started to shift the public's attention to the people responsible, shifting political ideologies as people began to form their own political opinions regarding Muslims and those associated with al-Qaeda. As anger grew toward those who were held responsible for the attacks, Americans formed generalized stereotypes and negative feelings for all Palestinians, Muslims, and Israelis as they became considered the enemy of the United States. The media instilled the idea that the victims of the attack were murder victims rather than war casualties and the perpetrators should be killed in battle. The media is the reason for why the American public collectively associated Muslims and Islamists with terrorism. This media created a frame of vengeance the publiccategorized the victims as individuals, but the perpetrators as a group, and was associated with even stronger support for a military response than a frame that viewed that attack purely in the context of war (Mitnik, 13).

The way the media framed the terrorist acts of September 11 contributed to the pouring of outcry that action needs to be taken against the terrorists. The media portrayed the Middle East as the harboring for terrorism and hatred for the United States. The media also served to place blame on Muslims as the offenders, which shifted ideologies of many Americans. The extensive media coverage had a major influence of 9/11 becoming a long lasting tragedy, as it is has been imbedded into the culture of the United States. The United States will forever be fundamentally changed, which was shown through the changes in law enforcement, air travel laws and regulations, and American fundamental. Some of the change was physically seen, such as the fact that the amount of surveillance and safety precautions had increased dramatically. This ranged from changes in taking off your shoes at the airport to stricter deportation enforcements. The nation's overall attitudes and outlook have changed, especially with concerns of safety and privacy. The media serves as a link between the world's individual and collective memories of the September 11 attacks through the intense amount of coverage from the day of the attacks.

The 9/11 attacks were the most documented event in United States history and, as a result, had the largest long-term impact on the nation. Without the work of the media, the attack would not have been seen on such a wide scale and thus would not have led to the widespread drastic reactions that it did. As the years continue to pass, memories associated with 9/11 continue to be solidified through the work of the media. Although the coverage has slowed down since 2001, there will continue to be coverage of the attack for generations to come. The topic is talked about so often and broadcasted so much that it has become extremely common for individuals to mistake their personal memories with information they have learned about on television over the years. The events of this tragedy will be passed down from generation to generation as it has become a part of the culture of the United States. The impact of the intense televised media coverage throughout the past seventeen years since the day of the attack, has served as the linkage between individual memories of 9/11 into the formation of collective memory as individual stories are told and made into a generalized shared cultural knowledge. The extensive role of the media has shaped the shared cultural knowledge of the September 11 attacks through the exploration and commemoration of those who experienced the tragedy first hand. ??

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A Story about Miner Struggles

Miner Struggles

When the gold miners arrived in california, mining was extremely dangerous and delicate. There was no guarantee for success. Many of them never even found gold after they had spent most all of their life savings, left their homes, friends and families. Many even said One of every five miners who came to California died within 6 months." Political instability and revolution, class tension, economic depression and repression are some of the world-wide events and conditions that set the stage. These tensions also caused crime, recklessness, and racism in California. Wars and other kinds of fightings were also caused by the Gold Rush.

(four men gathering gold from the American River)

Getting There

Living back in the old days was hard, especially during the 1800's. Over this period the earth shaped. The people during this time there was a gold rush and people took a journey to Sacramento, California. At this time California had 86,000 inhabitants. From all over the world in 1848 all brave men came to seek their fortune in California. Almost like the Oregon trail they traveled by wagon or foot. It was a struggle for people. It took over 9 months to get to California.

California was admitted as the 31st state of the Union in 1850. John Sutter found the gold but it made his life worse in his words, He would've been the wealthiest man on earth. Instead of being rich he was ruined.

I have my own story, I just heard about the fortune in California. The California Gold Rush was a huge deal at the time and I was very poor at this time as well. I went by wagon to seek my fortune and tried. I eventually made it somehow and the fortune as most people wanted was there but not in the way most people thought it was going to be.

I wish I got the fortune but I didn't.

(people ready for the journey)

Levi Strauss and Co.

Vocabulary

Boom Town: a town undergoing rapid growth due to sudden prosperity.

Claim: state or assert that something is the case, typically without providing evidence or proof.

Claim Jumping: a person who seizes another's claim of land, especially for mineral rights.

Ghost Town:a deserted town with few or no remaining inhabitants.

Forty-Niners:a prospector in the California gold rush of 1849.

Pay Dirt: ground containing ore in sufficient quantity to be profitably extracted.

(People running their findings through the water)

6th Period

"California presented to people a new model for the American dreamone where the emphasis was on the ability to take risks, the willingness to gamble on the future."

-H.W. Brands

The Gold Rush The California Gold Rush was the largest human movement in US history. It brought over 300,000 people across the states to California. The Gold Rush dates to the morning of January 24, 1848 to 1855. Even though some did not succeed at finding gold, some did, and were made rich because of it. Sam Brannan made a lot of money .Actually he made the most. The Gold Rush brought a total of 750,000$. Native Americans who lived in these areas were affected because their populations were getting overpopulated.They was moving in beside the American River.

Samuel Brannan

Samuel Brannan was a Mormon, settler and businessman. In 1846 he and over three-hundred other Mormons traveled to California in hopes of building a peaceful kingdom. Instead, he found gold and shunned his church to become a businessman. When Brannan found the shiny metal, he opened a second store in addition to his original to make more profits. After he opened his store, Samuel went to San Francisco and spread the fact that he found gold in California. This was so he could get more business by selling mining products like pickaxes and other items. This method was also widely used by other manufacturers in the 1890's.

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An Importance of Goldern Rush

The Gold Rush began in Sacramento Valley in 1848 when nuggets of gold were discovered. The epidemic was a very significant turning point for American history in the 19th century. The Gold Rush brought thousands of people to San Francisco to mine for gold. From the start, it changed many things about America, even the production of jeans.

The first discovery came from James Wilson Marshall on January 24, 1848. He was working to build a water-powered sawmill when he discovered flakes of gold in the American River. Right around this time, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed which left a California in the hands of the United States rather than Mexico. The discovery of the gold flakes was supposed to be kept a secret, but soon the word got out. Soon enough, the newspaper was reporting large amounts of gold turning up at the mill.

Eventually, about three-quarters of the male population in San Francisco left town to work in the mines, raising the number of miners in the city to 4,000. The trip to California was, however, expensive. Men around the United States would mortgage their homes, borrow money, and even dig into their life savings to make the trip. They became known as '49ers. Women no longer had men around, so they began doing more significant jobs such as running farms or businesses.

Since there were so many people in California to mine for gold, this was a perfect opportunity to set up shops, saloons, and businesses around town to make a fortune in the meantime. In the process, San Francisco became a spot for gambling and prostitution. While this was very risqu?© and lawless, the city's economy was growing more than ever.

The supply of gold was much lower than the high demand. Anglo-Americans were volatile towards other groups of people because they believed the land belonged to them. Because of this, they forced the others out with acts of violence. In the process, one hundred and twenty thousand Native Americans faced disease, homicide, and starvation during the Gold Rush and died fatally.

Eventually, the large quantity of gold became a smaller amount of gold. The Gold Rush actually did not last that long at all, because there were hundreds of thousands of miners, and a limited amount of gold. The more people that showed up, the less gold that was available for mining. Because of the dangers and struggles that come with mining, machines were created to help do the job. The new technique of hydraulic mining, developed in 1853, brought enormous profits but destroyed much of the region's landscape. (history.com).

The machinery did have a major negative impact on the environment of California. While the state served as a huge gold mine, the way that the gold was collected was destructive. Apparently, all the digging caused a large amount of silt as they dug into the rivers. 'It also involved, in many cases, using mercury in the process of separating the gold out. All of this flowed downstream, and it heavily damaged the rivers as far as agricultural use is concerned (nationalgeographic.org). Because of the concern, a series of laws were passed that banned mining in rivers.

People began to settle in California and the state became less of a hype and more of a home. The state was so popular that developing states like New Mexico and Arizona did not receive proper attention as new states. California, however, did make enormous popularity. Through the gold rush, around 1867, the gold production brought in a profit of $45 million a year.

It was said that a major way that people made money was by selling mining pans, shovels, and clothes. Prices increased significantly during the time of the Gold Rush. While a mining pan used to cost 20 cents, the price quickly raised to $8, a rough equivalence to $246 in today's money. Boots were $6, which would equal about $185 today. Even the price of eggs and beer extremely increased during this time. One egg itself could cost up to $92.56. The reason the price for these was so high was because the supply was scarce in California, and the merchants realized that they could get rich by scamming the miners into paying way more for the items than they were actually worth.

A majorly important contribution that the Gold Rush made to everyday life today is the production of jeans. The story goes as follows: Levi Strauss and his two other brothers journeyed to San Francisco to make a fortune when they stated a dry foods business. Levi got a letter from his tailor, explaining how the pants are so durable and why they last as long as they do. He explained that they contain rivets in all the points of strain. The tailor wanted to patent the idea, but needed a business partner and requested Levi's help. Levi was excited about the idea and agreed. The two began to collaborate, and the Jacob Davis and Levi Strauss & Company was founded.

The Gold Rush was seen as an important and influential turning point in the 19th century that brought civilization to California after the war. Men left their homes and broke into their savings accounts to travel the United States and make it to San Francisco to collect some of the gold. Women took over other roles while they were gone. The gold rush did not last long because the demand for gold was much higher than the actual supply available. During the time of the rush, people sold their mining supplies for a very high price to make a profit, and the concept of blue jeans was created. The process of mining also evolved, as high-tech machinery took the place of individual work in the mines. This caused the placement of several new laws because of the negative effect the machines had on the environment. The Gold Rush may not have lasted long, but the effect of it and the impression it made will last a lifetime.The Gold Rush began in Sacramento Valley in 1848 when nuggets of gold were discovered. The epidemic was a very significant turning point for American history in the 19th century. The Gold Rush brought thousands of people to San Francisco to mine for gold. From the start, it changed many things about America, even the production of jeans.

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Why was Goldern Rush Beneficial?

In the 19-century, there was a migration which developed a huge population. This migration is known as the California Gold Rush. The discovery of gold in the valley, sparked the rush to establish and news quickly spread to thousands of gold miners. Over 300,000 miners migrated to California in 1850 which created a great impact on families. Gold miners all around the world had to take a risk and leave their homes, and their loved ones in order to pursue a better opportunity.The California Gold Rush of 1848 built the foundation of california success with the emergence of entrepreneurs attracting different cultures from around the world for social and economics reasons.

Life as a forty-niner was very harsh, the percentage of people who became wealthy off of mining was so low. Many were planning on getting rich off gold, but the work itself was very laborious. The environment and homes began destroying the landscape because of a need for warmth causing various amounts of wildfires, the use of chemicals in rivers to help find gold caused many fishes to die. The increment of supply and demand began to rise and was a crucial at the time foremost provoking economic decline. Overpopulating San Francisco in a fleet, prices going up top prices were being paid. Immigrants were treated as awful as slaves they were attack financially with taxes and laws. Also violently seen as threats, Peter Hardermen the first governor of california openly declared and demanded their removal he would pay bounties to white settlers for exchange of indians scalps .Competition for gold was brutal and some lost it all. Captain Sutter was a swiss immigrant leaving unpaid debts behind and establishing a 50,000 acres agriculture community called New Switzerland. Soon, not knowing he had land full of gold, until an employee one day found a golden nugget. He tried to keep quiet but word got around about his find. Months later Sutters workers quit on him and went to search for gold. While thousands became rich off his land, Sutter was close to becoming bankrupt . Gold mining became a big industry over time, eliminating individual miners not being able to afford resources.

First reason why the gold rush became such a great movement for california is because not many people succeeded on astonishing and becoming wealthy by finding gold as everyone had fantasized. People became financially steady and wealthy by becoming entrepreneurs then mining for gold. After time the industrial constructed california which brought many to quit looking for gold and starting their own business like Philip Armour, who would later found a meatpacking empire in Chicago, made a fortune operating the sluices that controlled the flow of water into the rivers being mine And also Before John Studebaker built one of America's great automobile fortunes, he manufactured wheelbarrows for Gold Rush miners constructing a lifestyle. Building up such a great start for these entrepreneurs to their future success in America with the astonishing movement of the gold rush.

Immigrants had a such huge impact in the whole settlement bringing the different culture of california today. From South Americans, Mexicans, Irish and Chinese. In 1850 25% of california was immigrants from all over the world bringing new engagements in and out cultural wise. With not alot of knowledge they left their motherland for a new life. Strived for the california dream working as miners and even some becoming entrepreneurs. One of the races that shaped California the greatest were the Chinese. About 23,000 of the immigrants were from China. The Chinese were welcomed everywhere and were wanted by everyone as laborers, carpenters, and as cooks, since the restaurants they established were well patronized. Immigrants also helped economically making california a state of America faster with their population 14,000 to 250,000 in only four years. There is no doubt that immigration left a major mark in California that is still seen today. Even if it was through big or small reasons, business or the government, immigration is what built the california into what the foundation of the state we know of now.

Helping the rush period in california creating a national economic impact long term that lead california its success. Connected with the rush resulting becoming the california dream. Seen as a place of new beginnings wealth could could reward hard work and goodluck after years it spreaded around america and became the american dream. Increase of population and community being built. Shaping the U.S economy development and social advancement.

The impact of the gold rush became the success of California we know today. With the evolution of entrepreneurs and cultural wise of California, through there finance and societal. Benefiting the whole country with the perspective of the american dream. Finally, throughout the years California became the great, famous and outstanding state we all know because of the rush.

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The Gold Rush and its Impact on California

Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River, was the famous announcement that a man by the name of Sam Brannan yelled up and down the streets of San Francisco while holding a vial of proof of its existence (Cherny, Lemke-Santangelo & Griswold del Castillo, 2014). Gold had been found previously in California, but it wasn't until after Sam Brannan's announcement did the rush for gold start to spark the possibility of being able to attain personal gain from these findings. As the news of a bountiful of gold drifting down California's river's spread across nation's, it brought great changes to California. The Gold Rush started a movement to California, increasing population, expanding diversity, changing the economy and environmentally changed California's landscape.

Gold was first discovered in California in 1842 by a Mexican man by the name of Francisco Lopez. Francisco Lopez was checking out a herd of cattle and hunting with two other men in the San Francisquito Canyon. When the men took a break near the river to have something to eat, Francisco Lopez decided to take a nap under a tree. As the story has been passed down through the years, it is told that as Francisco Lopez napped, he dreamt of drifting freely across a river made of pure liquefied gold. Once Francisco Lopez awoke from his fantasy of gold, he started to dig at some wild onions he had found close by. As he dug, he spotted a fragment of gold glistening in the light. Francisco Lopez couldn't believe his dream had become a reality. He truly had found gold (The First Gold Rush, 1994). With Francisco Lopez's discovery, hundreds of fortune seekers traveled to what is now known as the San Francisquito Canyon to try their luck in mining their own gold. Francisco Lopez's discovery did not yet start what is now known as the Gold Rush, but it was the beginning of what was to come. Within a year, one-hundred and twenty-five pounds of gold was taken from the San Fransciquito Canyon area. The Oak of the Golden Dream, is the same tree that still stands till this day where Francisco Lopez took his most famous nap and dreamt of gold (Sabbatini, 1994).

Years later gold was discovered at a different location in Northern California on January 24, 1848. James Wilson Marshall was working for John Sutter in Coloma along with fifty other men from the Mormon Battalion, including a group of Indian workers. The men were in the process of building a ditch near the American River to bring water to Sutter's Mill when James W. Marshall from his own words explains my eye was caught with the glimpse of something shining in the ditch as he discovered the flakes of gold (Marshall, 1848). After four days of collecting as much of the golden flakes as he could, he took them to Sutter's Fort to show John Sutter. Before Marshall and Sutter could officially conclude that Marshall had indeed found gold, they researched and tested the golden flakes in order to confirm their assumptions (Cherny, Lemke-Santangelo & Griswold del Castillo, 2014). Once the 23 carats of gold past all the tests and examination's, they decided to keep the discovery under wraps. John Sutter wanted to ensure that his business of constructing and farming did not fall threw. Sutter had also been trying to attain the land in the valley from the Yalesummi Tribe. The primary document shows that Sutter and Marshall created the lease for the land on January 1, 1848, before the gold was discovered but was not yet signed. Once Marshall had discovered the gold, Sutter was more persistent in owning the land before people found out about the precious golden metal that can be acquired from this area of land. Two chiefs and two alcaldes from the Yalesummi tribe eventually signed the document on February 4, 1848 (California State Library). Sutter then sent Charles Bennet with the signed document to Colonel R. B. Mason who at the time was the military Governor of California. During his traveling, Bennet started to leak the discovery of gold. In the end unfortunately for Sutter, Governor Mason denied his request because at the time Indian's did not hold the rights to sell or lease any lands (California State Library). The construction of Sutter's Mill never finished.

Eventually, word had spread to a clever man by the name of Sam Brannan. Brannan owned a store near Sutter's Fort and had heard that workers from the area had been purchasing supplies with flakes of gold. Brannan then purchased a vial of gold from the workers and devised a plan. Brannan stocked up on all the necessities needed to mine for gold and set off to San Francisco where he would then make his grand announcement of gold being found from the American River (PBS). Even though Brannan held proof in his hands, the spread from word of mouth to those who had not seen Brannan's vial of gold with their own eyes remained skeptical, but by June the spark of Brannan's announcement had caught fire (Cherny, Lemke-Santangelo & Griswold del Castillo, 2014). The rush for gold began and California would then be forever changed. Sam Brannan's plan eventually worked and as people headed for the river to mine for gold, he had all the supplies to equip them and sold everything way above the price he had bought them for himself. Sam Brannan did not become wealthy from gold itself, but from the demand of supplies needed to go out and mine for the gold from others.

As the news of gold spread, people started to make their way westward to California by sea and across land. A great migration occurred within the United States and outside from South America, Australia, Europe and China, bringing diversity to California (California Department of Parks & Recreation). Before the Gold Rush there was an estimate total of around 13,000 non-Native American people residing in Alta California (Schmidt, McNully, Hummelt & Twilla, 2010). With the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848 which ended the Mexican-American War, 7,000 of the 13,000 people in Alta California were mostly Hispanic. The remaining 6,000 were a mixture of different nationalities. The greatest year of migration began in 1849. Those who migrated during this year to California became known as the forty-niners. San Francisco's population alone in 1849 grew from eight-hundred and twelve people to twenty-thousand (Smithsonian American Art Museum, n.d.). A group of people from the eastern United States known as the Argonauts were made up of Scottish, French, Irish, German and British descent. The Argonauts traveled the many different dangerous routes to California by foot, boats, wagons, and horseback. Those who chose to travel overland were headed for a long journey of about five to eight months long through dangerous terrain and susceptible illnesses. Many routes that were traveled on by land were previously paved routes from previous travelers such as, the Santa Fe Trail, California Trail, Mormon Trail and the Oregon Trail (CA Department of Parks & Recreation). Routes that were traveled by sea were a lot faster and took between two to three months. One route was by taking a ship that went from New York to Panama. From Panama travelers had to take a smaller ship up the Chagres River. Then they had to travel back on land by mule to over mountains to reach the Pacific port of Panama which they then would load onto another ship that headed straight to San Francisco. This route included the Panama Isthmus. Another route traveled by sea was done by going around Cape Horn which is the tip of South America (Cherny, Lemke-Santangelo & Griswold del Castillo, 2014). Within two years the population in California rapidly grew past one-hundred thousand, with Anglo-American's now the majority (Schmidt, McNully, Hummelt & Twilla, 2010). Even though Anglo-American's were now the majority, the great migration to California for its gold brought many different nationalities to California from China, Germany, France, Australia, Peru, Chile, Mexico, British Isles and the already mixed nationalities from eastern United States (Cherny, Lemke-Santangelo & Griswold del Castillo, 2014). The Gold Rush expanded California's diversity which still continues to exist till this day.

Since the end of the Mexican-American War, California lacked a civil government. As the population and diversity grew in California from the Gold Rush, there was a need to accomplish a government that could handle problems that began to arise. Californian's desired to become a part of a statehood in order to resolve civil issues. After a great deliberation in the US. Congress over slavery, California entered the Union as a free state by the Compromise of 1850. California officially became the thirty-first state of the United States on September 9, 1850 in part due to the Gold Rush that brought a rise in population, diversity and even economy (CA Department of Parks & Recreation).

Many people held the hopes that they would make it safely to California, easily find gold and become rich fast. This ended up not being the case for many. Traveling to get to California was expensive in itself. The cheapest way to get to California was by land which cost between one-hundred to two-hundred dollars. During this time with low wages, this was considered an expensive amount (Cherny, Lemke-Santangelo & Griswold del Castillo, 2014). For the people that had to travel from afar, by the time they arrived most of the land had already been torn apart and searched. By 1850, most of the gold had already been mined leaving hardly anything to find. The labor to find gold was not easy and it took a lot of work that was very stressful, and time consuming. More money was generally spent on traveling to California, buying supplies, and paying for services than actually making any in return from finding gold. Those who made a great profit during the Gold Rush and dramatically gained economically were those who provided services in either selling supplies, washing clothes, ironing and cooking which were mostly done by women (Smithsonian American Art Museum). When gold mining first began around 1848, a miner could find about twenty dollars' worth of gold per day but within five years this dropped dramatically to two dollars per day, if you were lucky (Cherny, Lemke-Santangelo & Griswold del Castillo, 2014). Many of this was in part due to California's changing environment and landscape from destructive mining.

As the findings of gold dwindled down, new methods arose to help decrease the odds of finding gold. Since mostly every rock and pebble in the rivers had already been overturned, miners decided to look up towards the high of the mountains to search for gold. One destructive method that was used is called hydraulic mining. The process of hydraulic mining was to first divert water from rivers and streams. This diverted water was then collected and used under pressure to blast the sides of the mountain (Cherny, Lemke-Santangelo & Griswold del Castillo, 2014). This strong water pressure had the ability to bring down trees and boulders to expose the entire side of a mountain's bedrock. As the sand and gravel came down from the mountain they were then run through sluices in order to separate the gold out. Hydraulic mining led to clogging the rivers with sediment (Thornton, 2011). Another destructive method of mining that created problems was as the rivers were dug up, silt was produced. Mercury was then used to separate the gold out and the silt and mercury would flow downstream through the rivers and contaminate the water. Another problem that occurred was that mining shafts were built underground in the Sierra Nevada Mountains (Thornton, 2011). Lastly, a major change in California's environment was that the natural element of gold that started the Gold Rush in the first place was starting to diminish itself from overmining.

Around 1855, after seven years of overmining, the Gold Rush era ended. With lack of luck in finding gold many people started to look elsewhere in trying to claim a fortune. Within this short amount of time, California changed dramatically. The population in California grew from around 2,000 non-Native American's living in California before the Gold Rush to about 250,000 people that had made their way to California by 1855. With the migration coming from all over the world it brought diversity to California that still remains today. With the rapid increase in population, California then decides to become the 31st state to join the Union as a free state. California's economy strived for those who banked off services and supplies for miners while miners themselves struggled in finding gold to bring in money. In the end, California was left dug up with the landscape destroyed in areas where mining was strongly active. The Gold Rush impacted California positively and negatively, and the effects of the Gold Rush remain present till this day with California being a diverse populous state of riches.

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Where the Gold Rush Happened

Introduction

Have you ever wondered who found the first peace of gold in the gold rush? These topics are going to teach you about where the gold rush happened, about getting rich in the gold rush, and about the forty niners.

Where It Happened

In a small town called Sutter's mill, California 300,000 people arrived to hunt for gold.The gold rush started in january 24, 1848 and ended in 1855.It also happened in sierra nevada.To get there many people traveled in wagons or horse across the oregon trail also some traveled by ship,some traveled from the tip of south America,it was a very dangerous journey to the gold rush. The majority of the people who came to the gold rush came from England,Ireland,America,China,and Germany.

Getting Rich

James w. Marshall was the first person to find gold in the gold rush.At first he kept it a secret when people found out that is what started the gold rush.During the gold rush gold seekers stayed in mini camps.That all happened in 1848-1855. Thousands of people got rich during the gold rush. All the thousands of people that got rich in all found 750,000 pounds of gold. So many people got rich the food got expensive it started out cheep the the more and more people got rich the price went up.

Forty Niners

The forty came from all over the world. The forty niners are a group of pioneers from Eastern united states. They are called the forty niners because they left their homes to go to the gold rush in california in 1849. The forty niners are very important to the gold rush because most of the people in the gold rush is the forty niners.

Conclusion

The topics of where the gold rush happened, about getting rich in the gold rush, and about the forty niners are included in the gold rush, and the gold rush is a very important event in history because the gold helped speed up the admission of California into the US as a state. With this information pace it with at least one person.

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India S Mid-Day Meal Scheme

Introduction:

With a view to enhancing enrolment, retention and attendance and simultaneously improving nutritional levels among children, the National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE) was launched as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme on 15th August 1995 (MHRD website). It became mandatory in 2001, every child enrolled in a government and government aided primary school was to be served a prepared mid-day meal with a minimum content of 300 calories of energy and 8 to 12 gms protein per day for a minimum of 200 days. Over the years, the scheme was seen various revisions and extensions. Although this scheme is centrally sponsored, the Mid-day Meal Scheme (MDMS) is a highly coordinated scheme with several actors at various levels that are essential for its functioning at the state, district, block, Gram Panchayat , local government and school level. India’s government mid-day meal program is the largest in the world, feeding 120 million students per day (Newton, 2016).

The History of the MDMS:

Certain states in India had their own mid-day meal schemes prior to it being introduced by the Central government in 1995. As far back in 1925, in pre-independence India, a mid-day meal program was introduced for poor children living in the Madras Corporation area in Tamil Nadu (GoI 1995:2 as cited in Swaminathan, add year). The next year, the Madras government introduced a compulsory elementary education scheme, which included the Madras Corporation. This program continued till 1982-83, when a new scheme was introduced, replacing it. The new scheme called the Puratchi Thalaivar MGR Nutritious Meal Programme (PTMGR NMP) was introduced in rural areas for pre-school and primary school children i.e. children aged from 2 to 9 years. The scheme was later extended to urban areas (Sept 1982), to old age pensioners (Jan 1983), to school students aged from 10 to 15 years (Sept 1984) and pregnant women (Dec 1995). Other parts of India too had their mid-day meal scheme before the government initiative in 1995 such as some parts of Kerala (1941), Bombay (1942), Bangalore city (1946), Uttar Pradesh (1953) and Gujarat (1984).

By 1990-1991, twelve states had implemented the mid-day meal program using their own resources. In 1995, the NP-NSPE was launched in certain blocks. Central assistance provided free food grains (100 gram/ child/ school day) and transport subsidies capped at Rs. 50/ 100 kg. By 1997-1998, the program was extended to all regions of the country. In 2001, the Supreme court mandated the mid-day meal be implemented by all states. In the states or Union Territories where dry rations instead of cooked meals were provided, the Supreme Court ordered that cooked meals must be provided within three months in all government and government-aided primary schools (classes I to V) in all half of the Districts of the State (in order of poverty) and must extended the provision of cooked meals to the rest of the state. In October 2002 the program was extended to children in Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS) and Alternative and Innovative Education centers. In 2004, the NP-NSPE was revised to include, in addition to the free food grain provision (100 gm/ child/ school day), central assistance for cooking costs (Rs. 1/ child/ school day), transport subsidies (capped at Rs. 100/ quintal for special category states and Rs. 75/ quintal for other states), a management, monitoring and evaluation cost and the provision of meals in drought affected areas during the summer vacation. Two years later, the NP-NSPE was further revised to increase the food intake from 300 kcal to 450 kcal as well as established food standard norms.

Central assistance too was increased in the following ways – doubling the assistance towards cooking costs to Rs. 2/ child/ school day; assistance to construct a kitchen or store room; assistance to provision or replace kitchen devices and changes in the management, monitoring and evaluation cost. A year later in 2007, the scheme was extended to children in class VI to VII in Educationally Backward Blocks and all children in these classes from 2008-09. Every child in these classes was to be served a prepared mid-day meal with a minimum content of 750 kcal and 20 gms of protein per day. The central assistance was also higher with free food grains of 150 gm/ child/ school day; increased cooking costs (Rs. 2.50/ child/ school day); provision of meals in drought-affected areas in the summer vacation as well as infrastructural assistance and increased transport subsidy to special category states. In 2008, this was extended to students in Muslim religious schools supported under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was covered. In 2009, after The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education was introduced, the scheme was revised frequently, almost once a year where the focus was largely on revision of food standards, legal standards for usage of double fortified salt, guidelines on food safety and hygiene and guidelines and a model MoU for engagin with NGOs or other civil society organizations. Table 1: Mid-day meal food norms effective from Dec 1, 2009 Items Quantity per day/Child Primary Upper Primary Foodgrains 100 gms 150 gms Pulses 20 gms 30 gms Vegetables (leafy also) 50 gms 75 gms Oil & fat 5 gms 7.5 gms Salt & condiments As per need As per need Source: Mid-day meal scheme website, MHRD (accessed Dec 23, 2018) Table 2: Revised Cooking cost (Rs.) per child per school day 2011 to 2016 Stage Effective Total Cost Central-State Sharing Non-NER States (60:40) NER-States (90:10) & 3 Himalayan States All UTs (100%) Central State Central State Central Primary (Class I to V) April 1, 2011 2.89 2.17 0.75 2.60 0.29 - July 1, 2012 3.11 2.33 0.78 2.80 0.31 - July 1, 2013 3.34 2.51 0.83 3.01 0.33 - July 1, 2014 3.59 2.69 0.90 3.23 0.36 - July 1, 2015 3.86 2.32 1.54 3.47 0.39 3.86 July 1, 2016 4.13 2.48 1.65 3.72 0.41 4.13 Upper Primary (Class VI to VIII) April 1, 2011 4.33 3.25 1.08 3.90 0.43 - July 1, 2012 4.65 3.49 1.16 4.19 0.47 - July 1, 2013 5.00 3.75 1.25 4.50 0.50 - July 1, 2014 5.38 4.04 1.34 4.84 0.54 - July 1, 2015 5.78 3.47 2.31 5.20 0.58 5.78 July 1, 2016 6.18 3.71 2.47 5.56 0.62 6.18 Source: Compiled from Mid-day meal scheme website, MHRD (accessed Dec 23, 2018) Figure 1: Year Wise Outlay under Mid-Day Meal Scheme (Rs. in Crore) Source: Mid-day meal scheme website, MHRD (accessed Dec 23, 2018)

The operationalization of the MDMS:

Food grains are provided by the local depots of the Food Corporation of India (FCI). While earlier the FCI supplied the food grains to the states and a centralized payment was made by the central government without confirmation by the states. Realizing that this was taking too long, the government decentralized the process in 2010 through a government order (F.1-15/ 2009). Under the new procedure, food grains are allocated biannually by the Department of School Education and Literacy in conjunction with the Department of Food and Public Distribution separately for the primary and upper primary levels. The first six monthly allocation is made in the first week of Feb of the previous financial year based on the number of children and number of school days approved by the Programme Approval Board of the Mid Day Meal Scheme for the previous year. T

he second and final allocation is made in the first week of August, accounting for the unspent balance available with the states during the previous year and the first allocation. The states send a utilization certificate of food grains supplied to the Government of India (GoI), where they indicate the quantity consumed. This is done at the Block and District level. Once the states receive an allocation from the GoI, they make district-wise allocation of food grains, separately for primary and upper primary classes. A buffer stock of food grains for a month is maintained at the district level. The FCI is responsible for continuous availability of adequate quantity of good quality food grains. The District collector (or the CEO of the Zila Panchayat) are expected to ensure the food grains are of fair and adequate quality and three samples are drawn in the presence of state government representatives and those of the FCI. These samples are retained for three months and use to ascertain the veracity of complaints, if any. The FCI is expected to raise bills by the 10th day of the next month after provision of food grains and the district administration is expected to pay within 20 days. The states are expected to make adequate provisions in their budget for this and are expected to release this amount in advance to the districts. The GoI is also expected to release these funds to the state governments as soon as the budget is passed. If no budget is available at the district level, the state should authorize the districts to use the relevant treasury rules to make payments and then adjust the amounts as and when the budget is received by the states. States are also expected to monitor the lifting, payment and quantity of food grains sent to the school or cooking agency.

There are several committees at different levels – at the national level the Empowered Committee, Steering-cum-Monitoring Committee (NSMC) and the Programme Approval Board (PAB), who monitor and suggest implementation measures. Other committees include – a state-level Steering–cum-Monitoring Committee, a District Level Committee and at the village level – members of Village Education Committees (VECs), Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs) and the School Management Committees (SMCs). The committees at the village level are involved in the more day-to-day implementation of the scheme.

Evaluation:

According to the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017 report, India is home to 190.7 million undernourished people in the world, constituting 14.8% of its total population in 2015-17, a reduction from 2004-06 where it was 22.2%. 38.4% of children in 2017 under five are stunted, implying that their mental development, school performance and intellectual capabilities may be affected by the long-term nutritional deprivation. This is a reduction from 2012, where the corresponding figure is 47.9%. One in five children suffers from wasting, implying that their weight is low compared to their height. Furthermore, India ranks at 100 out of 119 countries on the Global Hunger Index. Nakao et al. (2018) mention that there is no national health survey after the implementation of the MDMS to evaluate the improvement nutritional outcomes for children served a mid-day meal. One would expect that the program dovetailing school attendance with meals, would improve nutritional outcomes, school attendance and enrollments.

However certain researchers conducting their independent research have found mixed results as well as problems with the implementation of MDMS. A CAG report finds declining trends in enrolments during 2009-10 to 2013-14 observed in several states: Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, Lakshadweep and Puducherry. Dreze at al. (2003) who conducted a survey of 81 randomly selected villages, divided equally in the states of Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Rajasthan, found both positive and negative aspects of the MDMS in their interviews with parents, teachers, cooks and other individuals. Of the positive findings, they report – improved school enrollment, particularly for girls; improved school attendance and retention; socialization among other castes (in a limited way); non-income support to poor families and good management of food logistics. Their negative findings include – poor infrastructure for cooking (including water supply and utensils); repetitive menus; overt or covert caste discrimination and prejudices towards lower caste children or cooks; serious health hazards; disruption of classroom activity as teachers had to oversee the cooking and very low allocation of funds per meal. Another study conducted by Afridi (2005) in early 2004 in 41 randomly sampled villages in a non-tribal block of the Chindwara district on Madhya Pradesh, where information was collected on 615 households, 74 primary schools and 35 village panchayats. Afridi finds delays in the implementation of the program, 47% of panchayats spending less than mandated amounts, lack of adequate infrastructure, no separate kitchen and even the most basic - adequate plates. Afridi reports a better program implementation in Karnataka with more nutritious meals (pulses and vegetables) and tablets (iron, folic and de-worming). The program was also extended till class VIII. A study in 2004 by the Pratichi research team comparing 15 randomly chosen schools implementing the program to those who didn’t, found a 10% increase in attendance where the program was run, with a higher impact among the Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe and Muslim population.

They also found increased teacher attendance; over four-fifths of parents were in favor of the program; 82% of parents were willing to contribute in any way and 88% of children wanting the program to continue. It is also important to note the importance of this meal as almost three-fourths of children did not have food before coming to school. In addition to the issues mentioned earlier, their study found inadequate salaries paid to cooks and limited opportunities for parental participation. Blue (2005) found in a study of 8 schools in rural Rajasthan that the children and teachers spent long hours cooking or getting firewood and in the case of teachers, supervising the meal preparation and keeping records. Additionally, since schools were paid were three to three months, the teachers took loans of food ingredients. A study in the Municipal Corporation of Delhi by De et al. (2005) found that even after selecting NGOs and caterers to cook the food, the quantity and quality of food were less than the minimum requirements.

Criticisms:

The food served under the MDMS has been criticized on various fronts such as the menu, the food quality, the preparation and even down to who prepared or served the food. The food has been criticized as low quality and the menu being repetitive. It has been argued that the government is so focused on covering as many schools and students as possible, that food quality is often relegated to a lower priority. During the food preparation, it is possible that hygiene, cleanliness and food preparation standards may not have been met. There have been multiple news reports, where children have either fallen sick after eating the mid-day meal and in some cases, tragically died. Many of these children come from extremely poor families and the mid-day meal is the only meal they might eat in a day. Many incidents go unreported as well. The parents of these children, thereby, fearing the safety of their children have declined to eat the mid-day meals. With so many intermediaries, it is inevitable that some of the food or raw material is siphoned away or never reaches the schools. A report by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2015) found financial mismanagement by the Human Resource and Development ministry as well as states diverting funds of Rs. 123.29 crore meant for the scheme. The CAG report also found the following: the MDMS was not implemented in 32 government-aided schools of Amritsar and Ludhiana, depriving 50,417 students of benefits; the usage of 1.04 lakh kg less rice than prescribed norms in Belur, Karnataka and excess payments made to NGOs. Chauhan (add year) evaluates the use of schools to implement social policies by conducting 26 structured interviews, 8 focus groups and 5 teacher key-informant interviews in an Indian village in the state of xx. He found that the community does not trust the government, regards the state-run schools to be of poor quality and finds that the community no longer perceives the school as an institution that imparts education but one that provides free meals. He cautions that the change in perception would perhaps mean that the mid-day meal may not meet its goal of promoting education.

Bibliography:

https://mdm.nic.in/Files/Initiatives%20&%20Case%20Studies/NUTRITION_%20FOUNDATION_%20OF_%20INDIA.pdf

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The Importance of D-Day in the Second World War

On June 6th, 1944, the Allies launched the largest invasion on the beaches of Normandy, France. This led to liberation of Western Europe, which gave more strength back to the allies. The allies were able to take back France, which created another army to rejoin the war. Lastly it made Germany fight a two front war again. Just like in the first world war, which was why they lost. The Allies would not have won World War 2 if D-Day was not successful as it led to advancements to take back France, liberation of Western Europe, and made Germany fight a two front war.

The allied army led by General Dwight D. Eisenhower, stormed the beaches of Normandy on June 6th, 1944. This day would be go on to be known as D-day. But months before D-Day took place, the operation had already begun. Elaborate plans and deceptions of the Nazi’s had already begun, codenamed Operation Bodyguard, in the months leading up to the invasion to stop the Germans from learning any details of the invasion, such as when and where. The whole plan for Operation Bodyguard, was the Allies conducted several operations made to mislead the Germans as to when and where the Allied landings would occur. This would leave the Germans in the dark and leave them totally clueless. Then Operation Fortitude which included Fortitude North and South, a campaign using fake radio signals to tell Germans into expecting an attack on Norway, which was never a place that the Allies planned on attacking, then Fortitude South, another deception operation, that created a fake First United States Army Company under General George S. Patton, that was supposedly located in Kent and Sussex. The idea was Fortitude South was intended to trick the Germans into believing that a main attack would take place at Calais, which never occurred. All of this planning of misdirection and deception left Germany totally unaware of the plans for the invasion of Normandy (D-Day). Then in the days before the invasion Operation Pointblank was in place to to gain the air superiority needed to ensure a successful invasion, the Allies undertook a bombing campaign that targeted German aircraft production, fuel supplies, and airfields.

Just as important as these “set-up” operations was actually the weather. The invasion planners determined a set of conditions involving the phase of the moon, the tides, and the time of day that would be on only a few days in each month. A full moon was ideal, as it would have the highest tides and provide camouflage for aircraft pilots. The Allies wanted to schedule the landings for shortly before dawn, midway between low and high tide, with the tide coming in. This would improve the visibility of obstacles on the beach, while decreasing the amount of time men would have to be out in the open. Eisenhower had originally selected june 5th, 1944 as the date for the invasion on the beaches of Normandy. But, on 4 June, high winds and rough seas made it almost impossible to launch any bombing planes as well as ships across the channel.

James Stagg the Group Captain of the Royal Air Force met with Eisenhower on June 4th. It was predicted that the weather would improve enough for the invasion to proceed on June 6th. But after that the next available dates with the much need tidal conditions would be in two weeks, from June 18th to 20th. Postponement of the invasion would have made a disaster of the order of troops and alignment and along with ships already in position to cross the channel. Furthermore it would have increased the chance that the invasion plans would be detected. After much conversation with the other surrounding leaders, Eisenhower decided that the invasion should proceed on the 6th.

On June 6th, 1944 the Allies stormed the beaches of Normandy. Although it may sound like troops just assaulted on to a beach. It was way more complex than that. Normandy was broken up into five beaches. The Americans given two, Utah led by General Joseph Collins and Omaha led by Leonard Gerow. And Britain and Canada had a combined three, Gold led by General Gerard Bucknall along with Juno and Sword led by John Crocker.

The Normandy landings was the biggest seaborne invasion in the history of the world, with almost five thousand landing and assault craft, nearly three hundred escort vessels, and nearly three hundred minesweepers. Close to a hundred and sixty thousand troops crossed the English Channel on D-Day, with at least eight hundred and seventy-five thousand soldiers disembarking by the end of June. The allies lost as least ten thousand brave soldiers on D-Day, with four thousand confirmed dead. There were at least one thousand German casualties. The Allied invasion plans were to capture Carentan, St. Lô, Caen, and Bayeux on the first day of the invasion, with all the beaches linked with a front line six to ten miles from the beaches. But none of these objectives were achieved by the end of the first day. The five beaches did not connect with one another until June 12th, when by which time the Allies held a front close to sixty miles long and fifteen miles deep. Caen, another major objective, was still held by German until July 21st. The Germans had ordered French civilians other than those deemed essential to the war effort to leave potential combat zones in Normandy. But civilian casualties on D-Day are estimated to be around three thousand people.

There were several factor that led to victory in Normandy. The German preparations along the Atlantic Wall in Northern France were not completely finished. In the days before D-Day, German General Erwin Rommel explained that construction was not even a quarter of the way finished. The long and extraneous deceptions undergone in Operation Fortitude were a success as it paid off, leaving the Germans to defend a tens of miles of the Atlantic Wall. The Allies air forces, gained and kept air superiority throughout June and July, which meant the German force could not make observations of the preparations that were taking place in Britain and also unable to interfere with bomber raids. The Germans transportation in France was severely disrupted as Allied bombers kept bombaring the lines and the French Resistance, would cut off German supply lines in efforts to aid the Allies. Early in the bombardment it was not well aimed with poor information and locations. Therefore most of the early raids were off-target or not close enough to have any impact. On the five beaches there was specialised armor that was used, that provided artillery support for troops that were invading onto the beaches. Along with German failure to answer the invasion of Normandy and a very complicated command structure in the Nazi Party also aided to the Allied success on the beaches of Normandy.

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40th Anniversary of D-Day: Rhetorical Analysis

On June 6, 1984 President Ronald Reagan gave the 40th anniversary D-Day speech. This speech took place in France where the battle took place. He gave his speech at the U.S. Ranger Monument at Pointe du Hoc to give respect to the fallen. D-Day was a day that can never be forgotten. It was a day soldiers and allied troops stormed the northern shore beach of France. On this day 225 Rangers came to win this battle and end the war. In Reagan's speech he gave detail on what had happened that day, how many people fought, but most importantly he honored the soldiers, the veterans that stood before him on that day. The ones who sacrificed everything, so us the American people could have freedom. President Reagan uses logos to tell us the date of this specific event and how many people were fighting, ethos to quote other people to relate what he is talking about, and then he uses pathos when he is speaking to the veterans and honoring them for that day.

Logos

Reagan begins his speech by informing the audience of the four long years in the 1940's the allied forces had gone through a tough war and had come to liberate most of Europe that had fallen to the Axis powers. Europe had been under a terrible shadow. Europe was enslaved, and the world prayed for its rescue, (Vanatter, 2013, para. 2). After all the pain and suffering that Europe was going through, D-Day was the day that will be the answer to their prayers. Reagan (1984) continues to say that, In Normandy the rescue began and how the allies stood and fought against tyranny, (para.1). He then says that on, the 6th of June, 1944, 225 Rangers jumped off the a British aircraft at dawn and landed in the bottom of the cliffs, (Reagan, 1984, para. 2). He then continues to explain the mission the rangers were trying to accomplish, which included climbing cliffs and to take out enemy guns. He explained the troubles that the Rangers went through on that mission; they were shot at, their ropes were cut down when they traveled to a different site, but the Rangers never gave up and continued their mission. After he stated the troubles of the mission, Reagan (1984) then brings up the devastating news that, out of 225 Rangers only 90 could still bear arms, (para.3). With that he presented the memorial that symbolizes the Ranger dagger that were thrusted into the top of the cliffs, (Reagan, 1984, para.4). Reagan (1984) then recognizes the men of all the different armed forces of different countries, such as The Royal Winnipeg Rifles, Poland's 24th Lancers, The Royal Scots Fusiliers, The Screaming Eagles, The Yeomen of England's Armored Divisions, The Forces of Free France, The Coast Guard's Matchbox Fleet and you, The American Rangers, (para.10). Reagan then continues to say that in Georgia, churches were filling up at 4 a.m., in Kansas people were kneeling on their porches and praying, and in Philadelphia they were ringing the Liberty Bell.(para.11). Reagan then shares his sorrow with the Russians and he said 20 million perished.(para.16). Scott Vanatter (2013) says , In the face a soviet union still active in the world, he clearly laid out America's and the Allies' purpose in this war (para. 4). Vannatter says this to point that Reagan said everything in a good amount of detail on what happened during the war and that Reagan explained the purpose of this war.

Ethos

Reagan himself shows ethos because he is the president of the United States and he is the one presenting the speech. George Elder stats since that Reagan is the president saying this speech that the audience is,aware of what happened on D-Day and is not merely reciting some generalized comments, (para.3). He says, I tell you from my heart that we in the United States do not want war, (Reagan, 1984, para.21). He says this to his audience because he speaks for his country. He is the one that represents the United States and he is speaking on behalf of his people that we didn't want any war. Elder talks about british troops who looked up to Bill Millin, They looked up and saw Bill Millin with his bagpipes, leading the reinforcements and ignoring the smack of the bullets into the ground around him, (Reagan, 1984, para. 7). Reagan (1984) also states that they are, prepared for peace; prepared to deter aggression; prepared to negotiate the reduction of arms; and yes, prepared to reach out again in the spirit of reconciliation, (para. 20). He said this because he wants everyone to be prepared of what might come, a war that could happen years in the future. Reagan (1984) also says, we can lesson the risks of war, now and forever, (para. 20). He said this to his audience, and anybody listening, that there is a way to stop wars from happening. They won't let another war happen from that time or ever, but that if it does happen, then they will finish it off right there and then. He engages his audience to listen to him because he tells them about how hard the men have fought, how much they have sacrificed, how many have past, and so on. He wants everyone to know that the battle has ended because of those men. Towards the end of his speech he says, Today, as 40 years ago, our armies are here for only on purpose -- to protect and defend democracy, (Reagan, 1984, para.18). He gathers the audience by this sentence to understand that the brave men who fought the battle were the ones responsible for stopping the war. Elder states that, a number of memories in the audience as well as enhancing speaker and audience identification, (para.4). He says this because it brings the audience in the speech and the knowledge that is said in Reagan's speech convinces the audience that this is what really happened.

Pathos

Throughout Presidents Reagan's speech, he uses pathos to honor the men who fought in this time period. He speaks to the people on how much these men fought for what was right, for their country. Reagan (1984) reaches out to the men saying, Forty summers have passed since the battle that you fought here. You were young the day you took these cliffs; some of you were hardly more than boys, with the deepest joys of life before you. Yet, you risked everything here, (para.11). Even though some of these men 40 years ago were just young boys, they went out of their way to do whatever it took to fight for their country. Reagan (1984) asks the men, Why? Why did you do it? What impelled you to put aside the instinct for self-preservation and risk your lives to take these cliffs? What inspired all the men of the armies that met here? (para. 11). When he asks these questions, he already knows why they were brave enough to do what they did. Those men were there for a reason, they wanted to climb those cliffs, fight the battle, all to save many people. They were aware something going terribly wrong but, it was faith and belief; it was loyalty and love (Reagan, 1984, para. 11). Those men did what they had to do to stop the invasion from happening. They were aware of what could happen to them, but they did everything in their power to do what was right. Then Reagan (1984) said, We were with you then; we are with you now. Your hopes are our hopes, and your destiny is our destiny, (para. 23). He said this to the veterans because although the war was 40 years ago, they are still with them after the battle, their families, friends, and even strangers were there fighting the battle with them in their hearts.

Fallacies

One of the fallacies that Reagan uses in his speech is sentimental appeal. The reason being is because the whole speech is basically honoring the men that fought on D-Day. He wants his audience to admire them because they have risked so much and fought to the end. In some ways Reagan uses appeal to force because he wants to convince the audience that these men risked a lot 40 years ago and then plus he is the president of the United States. He also uses this type of fallacies because he quotes other people to tie his whole speech together and also to make his point on what he is trying to explain to his audience.

Conclusion

Reagan wanted this speech to be special since the 40th anniversary of D-Day and to honor the men who fought on this day. He gave a lot of logical facts on certain that happened on this day such as how many men fought, what they did, how many died, and where it was taken place. He convinced his audience that this was a memorable day and that we should honor the men that have fought and he also convinced them by trying to prove his point by quoting other people that are relating on what he is trying to say. He most of was honoring in the men saying that they were the ones that risked their lives that even it wasn't a force they wanted to do it for their country.

Reference Page(work cited)

Reagan, R. (n.d.). The History Place - Great Speeches Collection: Ronald Reagan Speech on the 40th Anniversary of D-Day. [online] Historyplace.com. Available at:
https://www.historyplace.com/speeches/reagan-d-day.htm [Accessed 29 Nov. 2018].
Vanatter, S. L. (2013, June 6). Ronald Reagan on the 40th Anniversary of D-Day, Pointe du Hoc [Web log post]. Retrieved from https://www.ff.org/ronald-reagan-on-the-40th-anniversary-of-d-day-pointe-du-hoc/
Elder, G. (2018). Analysis of Reagan's D-Day Speech | "Looking for God". [online] Ghe101library.com. Available at: https://www.ghe101library.com/non-fiction-articles/analysis-of-reagans-d-day-speech [Accessed 29 Nov. 2018].

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D-Day: an Important Page of History

On June 6th, 1944 Allied forces invaded Europe via Normandy, France. This day would go down as the biggest "D-Day" in history for more than 156,000 Allied troops invaded the beaches of Normandy. 4,000 Allied troops lost their lives that day and it is considered a turning point in WW2.

The Americans joined the war in 1941 and by 1942 they and the British were considering a major Allied invasion across the English Channel. In November 1943 Hitler, who was aware of the threat of an invasion, put Erwin Rommel in charge of defense operations in the region. Hitler charged Rommel with finishing the Atlantic wall.

Before morning, when it was still pitch dark, paratroopers began the invasion. These were men who dropped from planes with parachutes. They destroyed key targets behind enemy lines and and captured bridges in order for the main invasion force to storm the beaches. Thousands of dummies were also dropped to draw enemy fire. In the next stage of the battle thousands of Allied planes dropped bombs on German defenses. Soon the main invasion force of over 6,000 ships carrying troops, weapons, tanks, and equipment arrived. American troops landed at Omaha and Utah beaches. The Utah beah was successful but at Omaha beach, the fighting was fierce. Many soldiers lost their lives at Omaha. Eventually though, the Allies were able to capture Omaha.

By the end of D-Day over 150,000 troops had landed in Normandy they pushed their way inland over the next 7 days. By June 17th over 500,000 Allies had pushed their way inland and had pushed the Germans out of France. The Allied dorces then prepared to enter France where they would meet the Soviet soldiers moving in from the East. The victory in Normandy was a huge blow to the Nazis. It prevented Hitler from sending troops in France to build up his Eastern front against the Soviets. On May 8th, 1945 the Nazis surrendered to the Allies. Hitler comited suicide a week earlier on April 30th.

This relates to Anne Frank because this day was a huge turning point for the Allies in World War 2. In the long run it ended the war and saved many Jews, including her father, but sadly not her. Anne died in March, just two months before the war ended. The Holocaust ended the lives of around 6 million Jewish people, thats about two thirds of the ammount of Jews prior to the Holocaust.

There is also some interesting facts about D-Day. The troops needed the light of a full moon to see to attack. Because of this, there were only a few days of the month where the Allies could attack, This is why Eisenhower went ahead with the invasion despite the bad wheather. Another fact is that the allies wanted to attack during high tide so they could avoid the obstacles put in the water by the Germans. The third fact is that although June 6th is called D-Day, D-Day is also a generic military term where D stands for day of any major attack. A fourth fact is that the Allies called D-Day "Operation Neptune." The fifth, and final fact is that D-Day was the single largest invasion by sea in history.

Work Cited

World War II. Ducksters Educational Site, Technological Solutions, Inc., www.ducksters.com/history/world_war_ii/d-day_invasion_of_normandy.php.

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Operation Neptune Spear Overview

Abstract

From the scorching Iraqi deserts to the freezing nights of Abbottabad, Pakistan, the U.S. Special Forces have, over the years, managed to subdue global terrorism. A case in point in this regard is Operation Neptune Spear, which witnessed the demise of Osama bin Laden in 2011 – an event that significantly dented the operations of the Al-Qaeda terrorist outfit. In light of these facts, this research paper provides vital insights into Operation Neptune Spear, which is a term that refers to the Abbottabad assault on bin Laden. In this regard, the essay comprises four key sections: the introduction, the conceptual background of Operation Neptune Spear, key events, and the conclusion.

Operation Neptune Spear

May 2, 2011 witnessed a significant event in the U.S. history and, by extension, the entire globe: Osama bin Laden's demise at the hands of the U.S. forces. As the de facto fanatical architect of the 9/11 attacks in the U.S., bin Laden became a high-priority target of the country's counterterrorism units, with such elite forces as the U.S. Navy's SEAL Team Six, who are specialists in highly classified military missions, shouldering the mandate of infiltrating bin Laden's lair in Abbottabad, Pakistan, and either capture or kill the then infamous leader and founder of Al-Qaeda, which is a militant Islamist organization. In this regard, a myriad of views exist regarding how the U.S. intelligence could have captured bin Laden; however, as facts indicate, Operation Neptune Spear (ONS), was the most effective approach to apprehend the then world's most infamous terrorist.

Overview of the Assault

Firstly, fathoming the contextual background of ONS is indispensable to understanding how the U.S. SEAL Team Six traced and dispatched bin Laden. Following the 9/11 attacks, bin Laden became the primary target of the U.S. for several years (Bowden, 2012). Indeed, Govern (2012) indicates that from December 2001 onward, in the course of the post-September 11 major combat effort, U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF) and CIA operatives reportedly narrowed their combined U.S.-Afghan-Coalitional unconventional warfare pursuit of bin Laden (p. 351). The terrorist, however, could not be traced between 2001 and 2011.

The presidency of the 44th leader of the free world was, however, keen to counter the activities of global terrorism. To this end, Obama fast-tracked bin Laden's search. In particular, before Obama's inauguration in 2009, he second-guessed Senator John McCain's foreign policy, who opposed invading Al-Qaeda elements in Pakistan, by holding that the U.S. government should not hesitate to either apprehend or kill the terrorist under consideration regardless of whether the Pakistani government supports this notion (Govern, 2012). In essence, Obama's stance was that dispatching bin Laden should be the utmost priority of the American government (Govern, 2012). In this way, the Al-Qaeda operations would be significantly crippled.

It was not surprising, therefore, that Obama augmented the U.S. military forces in Afghanistan after he assumed the U.S. presidency. By August 2010, the U.S. secured a breakthrough in the search for bin Laden after CIA paramilitary operatives in Pakistan located Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti, who was Osama's most trusted courier (Bowden, 2012). In particular, the reconnaissance activities of these operatives led them to a secluded, million-dollar residence in Abbottabad, Pakistan, where they surmised that it was bin Laden's hideout. After the CIA, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), the U.S. Defense Department, and the National Security Agency (NSA) confirmed that bin Laden resided in the cited compound, they began to explore various options for launching a military strike on the target under consideration (Bowden, 2012). Thus, a capture-or-kill campaign commenced.

One must understand, however, that the CIA was the lead agency in gathering intelligence before engaging in Osama's kill-or-capture mission. According to Miller (2011), the cited agency had a safe house in Abbottabad whereby CIA operatives conducted detailed surveillance for several months on bin Laden's compound. The reconnaissance mission in question involved such activities as collecting satellite images of the fugitive's complex and engaging in eavesdropping efforts to record the voices of the building's occupants (Miller, 2011). In this, way, the CIA gathered critical details regarding bin Laden's activities inside his lair.

However, it was not until January 2011 that the U.S. forces tabled a feasible capture-or-kill plan: ONS. Specifically, a year earlier, the U.S. President had instructed Leon Panetta, the then CIA Director, to fast-track ONS (Govern, 2012). Subsequently, Panetta contacted the commander of U.S. Special Operations Command's (USSOCOM's) Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) to [expedite the] kill-or-capture mission (Govern, 2012, p. 353). Not long afterward, interagency USSOCOM-CIA presented various options for executing ONS, which included an airstrike or commando raid. Instructively, the Obama administration decided not to inform the Pakistani authorities about this mission because the U.S. feared that the highly-sensitive operation would be compromised should the Pakistani government become privy to its existence (Bowden, 2012). In light of the above insights, therefore, it was critical for the JSOC to execute ONS surreptitiously.

Key Events during the Operation

The American Navy SEAL Team Six was the force that executed ONS. Firstly, one must understand that the JSOC opposed an airstrike because of its inability to confirm whether the pacer [in the complex] was . bin Laden after the B-2 spirit bombers destroyed the compound (Sewing, n.d.). For clarification purposes, the U.S. intelligence had identified a man in the Abbottabad house, who never left the area. The reconnaissance unit, however, could not establish whether he was bin Laden. Thus, the President settled on the SEAL Team assault because this approach would allow DEVGRU to obtain the target's identification effectively.

Following the presidential assent, the Abbottabad raid commenced. Specifically, Sewing (n.d.) notes that on May 1st, at the order of the President and commanded by Vice-Admiral McRaven, two MH-60 Black Hawk helicopters left Jalalabad Air Field in the eastern region of Afghanistan carrying 79 SEALs and a dog named Cairo. Although conflicting versions of the assault exist, O'Neill's (2017) firsthand account provides the precise details of the raid as succinctly elaborated below.

In his evocative story, O'Neill (2017), the SEAL Team member who killed bin Laden, chronicles what ensued when his team infiltrated the fugitive's fortress. In particular, the American hero claims that they encountered several people as they breached the building's walls and invaded the first floor. O'Neill (2017), however, notes that bin Laden's precise location was on the house's third floor where he resided with his family. Instructively, O'Neill (2017) claims that it was not his effort that allowed him to kill bin Laden; his team played a critical role in this regard. For instance, as O'Neill (2017) indicates, one of his teammates dispatched Osama's son, which gave him (O'Neill) the space and time to ascend the stairs where he encountered an unarmed bin Laden. Without hesitating, as O'Neill (2017) recounts, he repeatedly shot the terrorist in quick succession, which effectively ended the operation. Afterward, O'Neill's (2017) SEAL Team leader radioed the White House Situation Room and confirmed the demise of bin Laden after establishing his identity (Bowden, 2012). Thus, SEAL Team six executed ONS successfully.

Conclusion

Although the Al-Qaeda militant outfit terrorized the globe for years, the success of Operation Neptune Spear presented a significant blow to their operations. In particular, ONS led to the demise of Osama bin Laden, the then most wanted extremist in the globe. Thus, the modus operandi of ONS is a particularly instructive case because it underlines the significance of conducting comprehensive reconnaissance before combating terrorist groups.

References

Bowden, M. (2012). The finish: The killing of Osama bin Laden. New York City: NY: Open Road + Grove/Atlantic.
Govern, K. H. (2012). Operation Neptune Spear: Was killing bin Laden a legitimate military objective? (chapter 13). SSRN. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2083584
Miller, G. (2011, May 6). CIA spied on bin Laden from safe house. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/cia-spied-on-bin-laden-from-safe-house/2011/05/05/AFXbG31F_story.html?noredirect=on&utm_term=.b50a3ccef233
O'Neill, R. (2017). The operator: Firing the shots that killed Osama bin Laden and my years as a SEAL team warrior (1st ed.). New York City, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons Publishing Company.
Sewing, G. (n.d.). In search of monsters to destroy: Counterterrorism policy and the use of special forces in the Obama administration. Pangaea Journal. Retrieved from https://sites.stedwards.edu/pangaea/in-search-of-monsters-to-destroy-counterterrorism-policy-and-the-use-of-special-forces-in-the-obama-administration/

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Brown Vs. Board of Education: National Historic Site

Brown vs. the Board of Education National Historic Site is located in Topeka, Kansas. This monument was inspired by the historical event that transpired in 1954 and is noted as one of the greatest Supreme Court rulings.

The Brown vs. Board of Education was combined of four other cases- as a collective, known as The Five Cases. In 1947, Gardner Bishop and the Consolidated Parents Group Inc., started a campaign to end segregated schools in D.C. In 1950, Bishop attempted to get 11 black students into the new high school in the area, but they were denied. Bishop hired a lawyer and took it to court, but it was thrown out. So, they took it to the Supreme Court to be considered along with the other four cases. In the end it got a different ruling considering that the fourteenth amendment didn't apply to the District of Columbia. In 1951, two cases were filed in Delaware, Belton vs. Gebhart and Bulah vs. Gebhart. These two cases were combined because they held the same issues. Kids were told to go to school in the next city when there was a school that was closer to them. In addition to that, the children weren't provided transportation.

In 1950, the case Briggs vs. Elliot was led by Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP legal team. Harry Briggs was one of 20 parents that requested that the county provide school buses for the black kids since the white kids were afforded that amenities. Their wishes were ignored by the schools, so they filed a lawsuit against R.W Elliot, the president of the board. In 1951, Davis vs. County School Board involved 450 students protesting the poor conditions in their schools for two weeks. They took it to district court, but like the other cases, it was thrown out. So again, this case went to the Supreme Court.

Jim Crow schools weren't afforded the same education as schools in white neighborhoods. Black children were being taught agricultural and domestic skills for when they got old enough to work for the betterment of the white economy. 98% of the black community held jobs as cooks, sharecroppers, housekeepers, laundresses, nursemaids, and factory workers. A portion of the remaining 2% were left to teach the children. A group of parents attempted to send their children to the nearest white school so they could have a better education, but they were denied access. One of the parents, Oliver Brown, felt the decision to give white children better education than black kids was unlawful. In conclusion, they weren't separate but equal. Brown went to file a lawsuit but the judge through his case out ruling that the schools were equal enough. He then went to the Supreme Court for an appeal- with Thurgood Marshall being their chief counsel. Marshall argued that the school systems violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment under the U.S Constitution.

Over the course of the case, the Justices of the Supreme Court became severely dived. While most wanted to declare that the Plessy vs. Ferguson case was unconstitutional, others wanted to keep things as is. By June 1953, the court decided to have a rehearing in December of the same year, considering that they were unable to come to a conclusion. Chief Justice Fred Vinson died and was replaced by Governor Earl Warren of California. By May 14, 1954, Justice Warren had concluded that separate but equal was in fact unlawful. The courts requested that the Attorney Generals of each state submit a plan on how they would move forward with desegregation. Most school districts ignored the court's ruling and kept schools segregated. So, a year later on May 31, 1955, the Court Justices made a plan to proceed with desegregation. This was a huge victory for African Americans and the Civil Rights Movement as a whole.

Toy baby dolls were pivotal in the ruling of Brown vs. The Board of Education. Marshall and his legal team approached Mamie and Kenneth Clark- who had a doctorate in psychology- to repeat an experiment they performed in New York City. This social experiment involved the Clarks giving toy baby dolls to black children; two white dolls and two black dolls. The children were asked which dolls were 'good, bad, and most like you. Majority of the children answered saying the white dolls were good' and they also identified with the white dolls. This proved that segregation has a negative effect on black children's self-image and psychological health. The Clarks felt as if the children would always feel inferior to other white children and it would continue to be that way if segregation wasn't abolished.

Jacob Chase was one of the founders of Topeka, Kansas and had the Monroe Elementary School Site apart of a homestead claim. This school was one of the four segregated schools for African Americans in Topeka. The school was closed in 1975 because fewer kids being enrolled as the years went on. Members of the Brown Foundation noticed the building was up for auction and went through the congressional process to get it transitioned into a historical site. On October 26, 1992, George Bush signed the Brown vs. Board Education Historic Site Act of 1992. Government Officials felt this was the perfect school to be turned into a historical site because of the history behind it. This school also symbolizes how far African Americans have come.

The site opened on May 17, 2004, on the 50th anniversary of the Courts decision to desegregate schools. The activities at the site include a 30-minute film, Race and American Creed. The film has an open dialogue between an adolescent girl and a family friend about the struggle about equality and freedom to all Americans. There is a Hall of Courage, where a historic film is played for people 12 and over. The kindergarten room was restored to its original appearance to reflect how the children and teachers were affected. A gallery is included in the site where seven short films reside. Also included, photos and exhibits are used to give a summary of what our ancestors went through to integrate schools. The most important and historical exhibits on the site is the baby doll used in the experiment to win the case.

The Clarks had given a pair of the dolls to a student, which was given to a close friend for her children. The white doll had gotten lost, but thankfully the black doll was still around. In 2014, a call was made to the park to see if they wanted the remaining doll. Even though original diaper was gone, and the face had a green tint, the park was more than ecstatic to take it. This is a symbol of one of the most important contributors of American history and the black baby doll is now available for the public to see.

The Clarks experiment has been reused many times in the field of psychology. Sadly, history repeats itself and there's still this sense of self-hate amongst the black community. Although it has greatly improved, there's always room for improvement. America was once a country that embraced racism and shunned anybody that wasn't purely white. We have now transitioned into a time where a percentage of white Americans are still very much racist but have gotten increasingly better at hiding it. African Americans will never truly be equal until white supremacy is completely eradicated.

Black people are now afforded the same education as whites but there's still this dark cloud that hovers over black children's accomplishments. Earlier this year, Michael Brown applied to 20 universities and was accepted into every one of them. This should've been a moment of celebration but a couple of Fox anchors reporting the story called him obnoxious. If this was a white young man would there have been a different response? Definitely. Why shouldn't he be happy for getting full rides to every school he applied to? If this was young Cody or even young Stuart, there would've been nothing but smiles and congratulations. This just goes to show that America still has a long way to go.

Another incident transpired a couple days ago involving a young black girl and her white female classmates. The young girl was reciting a popular catchphrase that has been circulating around social media and the black community- I have black girl magic. The white teacher alerted her mother saying that the saying made the white female students cry. Why should this young girl be punished for having confidence in her skin color and her black excellence? For centuries black people have been ashamed of their heritage and skin color. Black people have slowly but surely let go of the colorism and self-hate and here comes this lady trying to mute this black queen's confidence.

There's a huge distinction between inner city schools and suburban schools. You can take Frisco ISD vs. Dallas ISD. Dallas public schools are horrible. The curriculum is lackluster, the textbooks are outdated, and the schools are in unsafe neighborhoods. Whereas Frisco schools have up to date curriculum and textbooks, and they are in desirable communities. There has been a of chain of schools closed in Dallas because of lack of funds and enrollment. This has caused parents to go out of their school zone to take their children to school. Most schools located in the city are over run with drug use, along with gang and gun violence.

By the time these children reach their senior year of high school, they're looking for a way out. They want a better life and want to do something other than what's been showed to them. Black people have always been forced to work harder than white people in school and in the work place. A good percentage of white children come from money so they won't have to get a job because there will be one ready for them when they graduate school. Higher paying positions will be at the tips of their fingers because of affiliation. So, we really must question ourselves on whether African Americans are afforded the same opportunities as white people.

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Impact of Brown V Board of Education

In the Brown Vs. the board of education case had a big impact on many other similar cases as Mr. Brown's and on history itself. This case cased many people to see that the separation between educations was useless and did not help the children's education. It also did not help the racism going on at the time. In the 1950's, public places were segregated. There were black school were only colored kids went. Then there were white schools were white children went. Many white schools were offended close to the neighborhoods and communities were children of color stayed. But back then, African American's were not allowed to go to a white school or even attend any school with the white children. Many African American children had to walk far distances to get to school. Some walked miles and miles, even all the way across town just to get to school. Many African American parents worried about their children's safety getting to school. For such young innocent little boys and girls to have walk across rail road switch-yards and mile's and mile's through town to get to their school. Parents like Linda Brown knew that this wasn't right and needed to change the School board system operated. In Topeka Kansas, a little African American 3rd grade girl had to walk very far to get to her school. Her father knew things should change and went to court with many other black parents about the way the U.S District court was segregated.

This kicked off a change in African American history. This started a dramatic change in the world. This started with Linda and Olivier Brown. Oliver Leon Brown was born in 1618, in Spring-field Montana. He had a pretty typical childhood as an African American boy. Oliver Brown grew up a fine young man and made a living as a minister at St. Marks A.M.E and a railroad welder in Topeka Kansas. He was the provider for his beautiful wife and three daughters, Darlene, Cheryl, and Linda. Oliver wanted the best education and future possible for his daughters. All his children were enrolled in a school, even his 8 year old daughter Linda. Linda Oliver was going to Monroe elementary, an all-black. To get there, Linda had to take a 5 mile bus drive and travel through an unsafe rail road yard to get to her school, Monroe elementary. Oliver Brown didn't want his little girl to make such dangerous, long, and exhausting journey every morning to school. So, being that's another elementary school just 7 blocks away, Oliver tried to register Linda in that school, Sumner elementary school, which happens to be an all-white school. But the principal of Sumner elementary refused to let a colored student attend there school. After the principal refused, Oliver went to of the NAACP a.k.a National Association for the advancement of colored people, which was McKinley Burnett and asked for assistance. The NAACP was more the glad to help Mr. Brown. On 1951, 12 other African American parents who were denied there child into a white school's, joined in to help Mr. Brown and the NAACP start an inference in the segregation of schools. Out of all the families now involved in the interference, Mr. Brown was chosen as the lead plaintiff being the only male. During this time, Mr. Brown was only 32 years old. Now that Mr. Brown had similar, case.

When this case was taken to state level, it sadly lost the case. They referred to the Plessy vs. Ferguson case. That case had allowed had allowed the separation between black and white. The Plessy Vs. Ferguson case stated that the separation was not violating any law or amendment. The state was allowing the separation because they said It will better preparing the children for when they get later treated like this when there grown up." During this time, African American weren't allowed to eat in the same restaurants, drink from the same water fountains, or even ride in the same car train as white people. After losing the state case, Oliver and the NAACP didn't stop there. They took it to the next level. Oliver Brown and the NAACP took the whole case a step further. Determined to make a change in the segregation of the school board system. Mr. Brown and the NAACP went to the untied-states supreme court! They had first appealed in the supreme court in October, 1951. By this time, there were similar case's like Oliver's. Some case's started from Delaware, Virginia, and south Carolina.

The supreme court , first heard from the lawyers December 9, 1952. Both sides argued there point. Brown's lawyers argued that there shouldn't be a segregation in the education unless there was proof that black children were different from anyone else. The board Of Education's lawyer argued that many people including some blacks scholars, did not see a problem in attending a all black school. The arguments went on for three days. The supreme court talked over several months about the case. While the supreme court was asking both lawyers questions about the case, one of the supreme justices died and had to be replaced. A year after the first arguments where heard, the case was stated once again. Three long years passed until the case was finally closed in May 17th, 1954. The case closed with finally favor of Linda Brown and the other African American children!! The supreme court said it not fair that the black and white children were segregated in different schools. the votes were 9 to 0. Mr. Brown and the NAACP had won the case ! They changed African American history. It took some school's many year' s to put all the students together in the same school 's and have them all treated fairly. Some people were still prejudice against the blacks. That still didn't change the fact that Oliver, the NAACP, and Linda Brown forever changed the world. The purpose of the supreme court case Brown Vs. Board of Education, was to challenge the segregation of public schools. The segregation of public schools separated African American students and white students , which led to them attending different public schools. African American students and their parents argued that segregation was unconstitutional and a violation of the 14th amendment.

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A Case of Brown Vs Board of Education

Supreme court cases are rarely considered as only 80 cases will be heard a year with 7000 requests according to The Leadership Conference. One important case that is important due to changing history dramatically was the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case of the United States. Brown v. Board of Education was the first case to win race-based segregation as unconstitutional. This case began when Oliver Brown filed a claim after being denied admission to a white school. Brown's main argument in this case was that that segregation was depriving important aspects of education to children, especially those of color. During this era, there was different schools under for those of color and whites that was not a violation of the separate but equal clause. Brown appealed to the United State Supreme Court by using case Plessy v. Ferguson as authority. Brown argued that this segregation violated the 14th amendment for those of color. The 14th amendment is simply equal protection of the laws to the citizens of the United States. This being mentioned, even people of color, are to be protected of their rights. The important question was if public school segregation deprive children from equal education? After review, the supreme court finalized their majority opinion that it was a violation of the 14th amendment. This case had officially abolished separate but equal slogan.

Majority Opinion:

The supreme court had decided in favor of Oliver Brown v The Board of Education. The law regarding this issue has been changing throughout time. For instance, before segregation, we had slavery. Slavery was in our history along other laws such as the natural born citizen law. The Naturalization Act of 1970 was that anyone born in the United States are natural born citizens of the United States. Along these lines, this law was not seen as unconstitutional because the law was including the slaved individuals. According to the law of theory, natural law, was not accounted for in the Naturalization Act of 1970. Moralistically speaking, is it correct to grant citizenship for the citizens while not giving them the equal rights as a human being? When the supreme court was taking this case into consideration, they used the theory natural law. Typically, in the past instances such as Plessy v. Ferguson, the theory of Legal Positivism was used by the courts when determining their majority opinion.

As for the Brown v. Board of Education case, the court had used the principles of what is right and what is wrong. They took into account the equality of opportunities that individuals are to be deserving of. A child who is born in the color of a skin out of their control should not be punished or deprived of a public education that those of another skin color receive. The natural law includes that if a law or clause is preventing society from interacting or simply being able to work together, therefore it is unjust. In this case, not being able to receive an education together in a society is unjust. This leads to other factors such as differences of education that can later affect employment requirements. To begin with, having an education from an institution of colored only would not be sufficient for an employer with a requirement of more adequate education. In other words, this would affect the future employees from working together in a society which disrupts the Natural Law. When the supreme court was deciding, they ensured to encounter present and future implications that may have resulted from different education facilities or institutions.

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Brown V. Board of Education: an Issue in Civil Rights History

One of the biggest supreme court cases in history is, without a doubt, Brown vs. Board of education. This case came about because of one little girl and a father who took initiative in order for his daughter to have an equal opportunity with her education. The story of Linda Brown takes place in Topeka, Kansas where, as an elementary schooler, was forced as a child to travel two miles across Topeka, Kansas to attend an all-black elementary school rather than going to the white school that was mere blocks from her home (Rothman 1). Her father filed a lawsuit claiming that this situation went against their 14th amendment rights. The 14th amendment in the United States Constitution, according to Laura F. Edwards, states that ...the Fourteenth Amendment established birthright citizenship and provided federal protection of civil rights, and prohibited states from discriminating on the basis of race (310). Linda was not allowed to attend the all white school solely on the basis of her skin color clearly a violation of their basic rights according the the constitution. This case would eventually become one of the biggest court cases in civil rights history. Three reasons the supreme court case Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka Kansas had such an important impact on the history of the United States is because it desegregated schools, led to the outlaw of Jim Crow laws, and helped paved the way to reversing the verdict of Plessy vs. Ferguson.

Before explaining the different ways the case Brown vs. Board of Education had an impact on U.S. history, it is important to understand what the NAACP was and who was involved with it. NAACP is an acronym for ...the National Association for the Advancements of Colored People (Gregory Nelson Hite 297). This association is important when telling the story of Brown vs. BoE because without the NAACP there may not have been a court case at all. The beginning stages of the formation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People started during ...the Springfield, Illinois, race riot of 1908, in which two black people were lynched and more than 50 injured (Boyd S3). It was because of this that one man named William English Walling decided to write about it. His wiring about the horrors that had taken place caught the eye of of a white woman by the name of Mary White. With the ideas laid out by the activist named W.E.B. Dubois and the initiative taken by William Walling, Mary White Ovington, Henry Moskowitz, and soon after, Oswald Garrison Villard, Charles Edward Russell, Bishop Alexander Walters, and Reverend William Henry Brooks that would create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored people that helped paved the way to becoming the organization we know today. In the moment of the founding of this organization, America was a place with very limited opportunities for any colored person or African American citizen living there especially in the south which is why the NAACP was founded with the idea of equality for both white and colored Americans. This group is extremely relevant when explaining Brown vs. Board of Education because one man in that organization named Oswald Villard had a major help in the Brown court case. As stated by John Nichols, ... it was Villard who took the lead in forming the NAACP's legal arm, which would prove so instrumental to the movements success, culminating in its historic legal victory in Brown vs. Board of Education (5). It was because of the activism and determination of the people that created the NAACP that led to the one of the greatest supreme court victories in American civil rights history.

One major reasons the Supreme Court case Brown vs. Board of Education had an important impact on American history is because it was the reason for the Desegregation of schools in America. There was a clear difference between the quality of education and facilities between white and colored children during those times. The schools in white neighborhoods had many luxuries that colored children never imagined. Simple things like air conditioning in classrooms, and cool drinking water fountains were something most colored schools lacked. Colored education lacked the funding, the material, and a proper salary for teachers. It is no wonder that supreme court finally decided to allowed schools so become integrated because it was a very clear violation of the human right of colored children. There was a simple reason as to why segregation in schools was so harsh and unfair to colored children, according to the Virginia museum of History and Culture, Many whites did not want blacks to become educated, fearing they would challenge white supremacy and not be content with jobs working in the fields or in domestic services. White supremacists, especially white males, were making education for school children practically impossible because they were scared the power colored educated people would hold. The story of Linda Brown is just one of many difficult stories involving young colored children having to go to through dangerous journeys just to get an education. The Supreme Court case Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka Kansas had such a huge impact in America because equal educational opportunities for every scholar and it is the reason schools all over America today are not segregated.

Another important reason why Brown vs. Board of Education was extremely important in American history is because its verdict helped move forward to the complete removal of the infamous Jim Crow Laws. According to the article Jim Crow Laws, Jim Crow Laws were a collection of state and local statuses that legalized racial segregation. America during the Jim Crow Laws was a harsh and unimaginable place filled with hatred towards people of color. While the Jim Crow Laws were in place people of color could not sit in the same place as white people, whether that be in a restaurant, in a bus, or even in a movie theatre, people of color were not able to share water fountains, playgrounds, restrooms, neighborhoods, and waiting rooms. Many of the jobs that were available were only given to white people and since most of the law enforcement was white, people of color were constantly treated with violence they deemed necessary to retain order. Brown vs. Board of Education, although it had to do with desegregation of schools, was a big power move to help abolish Jim Crow Laws. It was because of the rules of Jim Crow that schools were segregated in the first place, so it was only a matter of time, after the verdict, before realizing these laws were a clear violation of the civil rights of people of color.

The final reason why Brown vs. Board of Education was an important part of American history is because it helped counter a previous court case, Plessy vs. Ferguson. Plessy vs. Ferguson started with a man named Homer Adolph Plessy who refused to give up his seat to go to another car for people of color only. He was arrested because of the law that was put in place during that time in Louisiana called the Separate Car Act of 1890. It was because of the Plessy vs. Ferguson Supreme Court Case ruling that the idea of separate but equal was established. As stated by the article Plessy v. Ferguson, In declaring separate-but-equal facilities constitutional on intrastate railroads, the Court ruled that the protections of 14th Amendment applied only to political and civil rights (like voting and jury services), not social rights (sitting in the railroad car of your choice). The idea that separate but equal was constitutional and did not violate any civil rights would lead to the segregation of just about everything. This verdict was the reason why schools were segregated because, according to the supreme court, as long as both black and white children went to school it did not matter whether they were going to separate facilities. Brown v. Board of Education was the determining factor in getting rid of Plessy v. Ferguson because the idea of separate-but-equal was found to be was unequal and unconstitutional therefore reversed after the Brown Supreme Court Case.

In conclusion, the 1954 Supreme court case, Brown v. Board of Education is one of the most important cases in American Civil rights history because it was the reason schools became integrated and children of color were finally able to have an equal opportunity in education. With the help of the NAACP, the Brown case was able to gain a victory which led to the desegregation of schools, the outlaw of the Jim Crow Laws, and it reversed the verdict of the court case Plessy v. Ferguson.

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Significance of Brown V. Board of Education Court Case

The civil rights movement began because of the segregation of whites and blacks in the United States after the civil war. In result of the Civil War, the southern half of the country was in remains and the start of reconstruction was ongoing. Although slaves were already supposed to be considered freed, the racist emotion in the south was still progressing and they found ways to manipulate and torture blacks with work and little food. One of these ways was through segregation and the excuse of separate but equal in society. This problem finally grew on the nationwide view in the Supreme Court case, Plessy v. Ferguson, where the state of Louisiana had a segregation law set in place to fix the issue. Although there was already segregation laws in Louisiana, the Supreme Court supported it on a national level based on the theory that separate but equal does exist.

In 1890, a new law was implemented in Louisiana this required railroads to provide equal but separate accommodations for white, and colored, races. The already enraged black community decided to test the law. On June 7, 1892, Homer Plessy was taken and jailed for sitting in the White car of the East Louisiana Railroad. Plessy was one-eighths black & seven-eighths white, but according to Louisiana law, he was black by blood and history. Plessy felt as if the thirteenth and fourteenth amendments were being violated and went to court arguing that the Separate Car Act was contradicting them. The results later coming back and starting the court cases as the judge found that Louisiana was not in the wrong and they could control railroad companies in their state; this made Plessy guilty of refusing to leave the white car.

On a later date, Plessy appealed to the Supreme Court of Louisiana, as he did not believe his punishment for actions was right, but they defended the original decision already made. In 1896 Plessy made another appearance in front of the Supreme Court of the United States for them to here in on the case and was convicted guilty once again. In result to this hearing the Separate, but equal doctrine was released. The Separate, but equal doctrine was a legal statement in the United States constitutional law stating that racial segregation did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. constitution, which guaranteed equal protection to all people.

The case of Brown v. The Board of Education first began with five separate class-action lawsuits that was then joined together by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) on behalf of the colored schoolchildren and their families in Kansas, South Carolina, Delaware, Virginia and Washington, D.C. The lead plaintiff known by the name of Oliver Brown he had filed a suit against the Board of Education in Topeka, Kansas in 1951, after his daughter Linda was not granted admission to a white elementary school.

Linda Brown, like many of her friends was a women of color, was allowed the privilege to go to school. However, she and her black friends were only allowed permission into a school for Blacks meaning, they were actually segregated from the white students. Therefore, taught to keep their safe space, they were then not allowed the opportunity to associate, socialize, make friends, and learn with the white students. Away from being segregated, there were comments that the schools put forward to black students never were half the standards of the schools attended by Whites when it came to books and facilities. What the law said during those times is as followed: that all schools – whether they cater to the white or the black population – should be equally equipped. That horrible situation provided the setting for Brown v. Board of Education.

Linda, Brown's daughter, resided only seven blocks away from a good, high standard, and well educated elementary school. Though, she had to commute everyday one mile to reach her school's location and be able to attend her classes. The reason was simple and nothing to complex, the school positioned seven blocks from her home was a school designated only for Whites. In 1950 however, her parents made an overall decision and decided to ignore the segregation rules as stated by the school and tried to have Linda registered in the school closer to her home so that she would not have to walk a mile one way each day just to attend her classes. The problem became larger as she was directed away by the school principal who insisted on following and staying strict to the school's policy of segregation (Cozzens, 1998).

Following the principal of the elementary school seven blocks from their home denied to register Linda, her father, Oliver Brown, wanted the help of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.

After the principal of the elementary school blocks from her school refused to allow Linda, her father, Oliver Brown, wanted the help of the NAACP. The Topeka, Kansas branch leaded by McKinley Burnett directly took up the case because it had been excited to begin a legal challenge against the issue of segregation which was directed by white schools at the time. The NAACP brought together thirteen parents and directed them to register their twenty children in schools that were not directly for colored people. In Topeka, eighteen schools were chosen for white children while and only four of those schools were accessible to black children. When all children were denied permission to schools for Whites, the NAACP made all the parents plaintiffs in a class suit it filed in their behalf against the Board of Education in Topeka, Kansas. (Brown Foundation, 2004).

Brown v. Board of Education was a breakthrough in American history, as it was the start to the long process of cultural segregation, starting with schools. Segregated schools showed so much difference in quality and standards, so African-American families organized the fight for equality. Brown v. Board stated that public schools must mix races and not separate based on color. This court decision created huge disagreement throughout the United States. Without this case, the United States may still have been segregated today. Although the Fourteenth Amendment gave certain rights to blacks, including citizenship, equal protection of laws/freedom, African-Americans were considered lesser of people by whites in this country.

Justice Henry Brown wrote that the intention of the fourteenth amendment was not to abolish racial distinctions. Nor to establish social equality, but merely to establish political equality. Laws permitting and even requiring separation of races do not imply inferiority. This writing came up to mind after Plessy presented his case and failed one more time creating that separate, but equal doctrine. The separate but equal doctrine strengthened segregation practices in schools and throughout public life.

In the 1930's, under the leadership of Charles Hamilton Houston, the NAACP, begin to attack the separate but equal doctrine. Houston strategically focused his attacks on the realm of public education, because he felt like the detrimental effects of racial segregation were most readily visible in this area of life. Education was already so separated based off color and any money put fourth towards education or new advancements went to the whites. The road to Brown v. Board of Education was officially underway and Topeka chapter was small, but by far known as powerful. For the next two years Burnett, member of Topeka chapter, attended every single school-boarding meeting. In fact, Burnett had no option but to save all his leave time in order to be able to be present at the board meetings, because they were held during his work hours.

Since, the board refused to acknowledge, Burnett's continued requests, he decided it was time to look ahead and seek legal remedies. Burnett joined with the Scott family law firm, a local law firm with a well-established, history of filing discrimination cases through the state of Kansas. The awareness of this case grew rapidly and awareness began to grow. By the fall of 1950 they had successfully gathered 20 children who were willing to help test their case. These families were to take their children to the white school closest to their home and attempt to register and have a witness there to document what occurred.

On August 3rd, 1951, the United States Court in Kansas concentrated their decision to uphold the right of the Topeka school board to maintain segregated schools. They decided that the schools were both separate and equal. The three-judge district board did recognize the validity of the arguments stated regarding the emotional impact of state supported segregation, but with the road leading to this they could not make a ruling that opposed the Supreme Court's decision in Plessy vs. Ferguson case that was presented earlier.

On May 17, 1954, United States Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous ruling in the landmark civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. State-sanctioned segregation of public schools was a violation of the 14th amendment and was therefore unconstitutional. The legacy of brown v. board of education that was fueled by the Civil Rights will forever be known as it was much needed for talks on racism, equality, and so much more.

The Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board marked a outstanding moment in the NAACP's decades-long campaign to battle school segregation and how it was not right. In proclaiming school segregation as unconstitutional, the Court turned over the long-lasting separate but equal doctrine recognized in Plessy v. Ferguson many years ago leading up to Brown v. The Board of Education. In his view, Chief Justice Warren proclaimed public education was an essential right that deserved equal protection, stating plainly separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.

In its memorable ruling, the Supreme Court did not insist of how to exactly end school segregation, but rather they had asked to hear further arguments and problems on the issue as they progressed. The Court's fearfulness, combined with firm local resistance, meant that the brave Brown v. Board of Education ruling did little on the community level to achieve the goal they were attempting to reach of taking segregation out of schools. Black students, to a large amount, still attended schools with cheap facilities, out-of-date textbooks and often no basic school supplies.

Over 60 years after the breakthrough ruling, measuring its impact remains a complex effort. The Court's decision definitely fell short of original hopes that it would end school segregation in America for the rest of time, and some believed that bigger social and political services within the country played a far greater role in ending segregation.

As the Supreme Court has grown progressively divided along political spectrums, both conservative and liberal justices have claimed the Brown v. Board to argue different sides in the constitutional debate. Chief Justice John Roberts, stating for the minority, asserted: The way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discriminating on the basis of race. Justice John Paul Stevens then wrote that the ruling rewrites the history of one of this court's most important decisions.

Today children of all color and race attended the same school. Whether it is a boarding school, private school, or a public school they all attend class in the same classrooms every day. The case of Brown v. The Board of Education has changed the education for the future generations to come! This case was very impactful to the Brown family as his daughter was in the process of applying to a public elementary and they were still being treated bad and un-humane. His case really opened the eyes of the jury to see that separation of the school was not advancing nor helping students instead just making education an inconvenience. We are constantly reminded every day that encouraging the conjoining of schools has helped children to learn the different lives some children have to live. This makes little things be more appreciated and helps to care for the others who may not be able to provide for themselves. The jury had no clue onto how this separation was a huge impact on the world and student. Students are now better able to learn from each other and the different features of each culture people come from.

The Brown v. Board of Education was one very important revolving points in the judicial jurisprudence that backed to the overall expansion of the United States. When the choice of the Supreme Court ruled that segregation did violate the Fourteenth Amendment, the future plans concerning rights of the people were afterward shaped. Aside from helping in the maturing of our democracy, it restated the sovereign power of Americans in protecting their rights under the constitution from the arbitrary limits and restrictions imposed by state and local governments. Linda Brown, therefore, sent her message across, clearly stated for the people (Brown Foundation, 2004).

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