The Life of Frida Kahlo

Frida Kahlo is considered to be one of Mexico's greatest artists. However Kahlo is also very well known in America. She is mainly recognized for her art that speaks to viewers emotionally and physically. Frida was an artist,a communist,an accident survivor,a non-conforming woman and an educator. To this day Frida still holds all of these titles. Frida was born Magdalena Carmen Frieda Kahlo y Calderon on July 6,1907. Frida was born in Mexico City,Mexico to Guillermo Kahlo and Matilde Calderí?n y González. She was the third born of 4 girls. Kahlo's life started off hard. At age 6 she got a disease called polio and was bedridden for 9 months. During this time, the disease caused Frida's right leg and foot to grow thinner than the left. Frida's classmates called her peg-leg Frida. But that didn't stop her from participating in normal activities such as soccer,swimming and wrestling. These weren't usual sports for a girl at that time, but Frida was always encouraged to do what she loved. In 1922,at the age of 15,Kahlo was one of the 35 females enrolled in the renowned National Preparatory School. Frida was known for her very jovial spirit. While attending this school, Frida decided to focus her studies on natural sciences so that she could attend medical school. During her time at this academy, Frida joined a group called Cachuchas, led by Alejandro Gí?mez Arias, who Frida later dated. The group would watch an artist, by the name of Diego Rivera, paint a mural in the school auditorium. One day Frida and Alejandro got in an accident on the bus, and Frida's pelvis was broken along with several other injuries that caused caused her to spend 9 months in bed recovering. During those 9 months Frida spent her time drawing self-portraits. This was the beginning of Frida's career as an artist. After Frida recovered for the most part, she joined the Mexican Communist Party. Through this network she met several prominent communist figures such as Julio Antonio Mella, an exiled Cuban communist, and Diego Rivera. Frida showed Rivera her art work and he encouraged her to keep doing her art. A year after Diego and Frida met, they married. The couple moved to Cuernavaca, Mexico. Soon after moving Diego's work took the couple to San Francisco, New York, and Detroit. In 1933 the couple went to New York on business and returned to Mexico in 1934. When they returned to Mexico , the couples marriage was hanging on by a thread. Both Diego and Frida took on private lovers even though they weren't divorced. Frida eventually went to New York and Paris to showcase her work, and when she returned Diego requested a divorce in 1939. The couple remained friends and remarried in 1940 when they were both in San Francisco due to illness. In Frida's last few years, her leg was amputated due to gangre. After her leg was amputated, Frida went into depression. On July 13, 1954, at the age of 47, Frida passed away.Frida is still a very well known artist to this day. Frida is recognized as an important figure in the LGBTQ community, a feminists and a part of the Chicano community. Frida is still known and loved by many.

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Isolation in the Stranger Novel

Isolation can be seen as beneficial or detrimental. Isolating one's self can reboot and unwind the brain, improve concentration, increase productivity, provide opportunities to discover yourself and find your own voice, provides time for you to think deeply, help you work through problems more effectively and enhance the quality of your relationships with others. On the other hand, people who live in seclusion perceive stress more strongly than social people, are more likely to become depressed and have worsened social interactions. The author of The Stranger in the Woods, Michael Finkel, has tried isolating himself before, but could not withhold social interactions for more than a few hours. Finkel believes that isolation is beneficial, but interacting with humans is necessary.

So, what is the essential nature of humanity? Is it to cooperate or dominate? It depends on both the goal, and the individual. How do humans evaluate all things, in order to make decisions? Emotional value, which is determined by a combination of our genes, our experience and knowledge, the environment, our physical, mental, and emotional states, and more. Most of these factors are constantly changing, which changes many emotional values. Humans, by will power alone, cannot alter the emotional value of anything. If we could, then we would choose to be happy all the time. We'd be able to enjoy the foods we hate, and enjoy the company of people we dislike. However, lies, half-truths, rumors, and the opinion of others, can and does alter the emotional value of most things.

The effect humans have on each other is part of what makes up the essential nature of humanity. The relationships we build, along with the opinions we develop, are what creates social patterns, behaviors, etc. After reading the biography of a man, Christopher Knight, who was a hermit for twenty-seven years, one might think that the essential nature of humanity is enhanced when alone, but in fact, it is weakened. Without human interaction, Christopher Knight had deficient social skills. Along with this, Knight was forced to turn to commiting crimes in order to survive.

Knight committed more than a thousand burglaries for food and other supplies, and was caught by Terry Hughes, a determined game warden. Knight was forty-seven years old when he tripped over a surveillance sensor when stealing food from a camp for disabled people. This act lacks morality and ethics. This lack of morality and ethics could be linked to the absence of social interaction and isolation Knight has experienced for so long. Knight's punishment should not be withheld or lessened primarily because he was a hermit. Knight was a hermit by choice, and therefore should face the consequences that come with hs actions.

Knight's living quarters included a tent covered by tarps suspended between trees, a bed, propane cooking stoves and a battery-run radio, which he used to keep up with the news and listen to talk radio and a rock station. All of the said items in Knights living quarters were stolen from Maine residents cabins. Knight did not lack all morals though, he made sure to do acts such as repairing doors and refused to steal any item of value. Even with these intentions in mind, Knight still managed to steal personal items that had sentimental value, such as the camp facilities director, Chelsey, son's timepiece. Though this timepiece was not valuable, it held sentimental meaning, for it was given to him by his grandfather.

Mass amounts of emotional distress came with the robberies committed by Christopher Knight. Maine residents lost the feeling of safety within their own homes due to the fear of returning to a missing item, or even worse, a home invasion while residing in their cabin. Residents set up surveillance cameras and left offering for the hermit, but he would never be captured on camera or take the offerings. Again, these acts of invading people's homes and robbing them of their personal items is illegal and should not be overlooked. Taking into account that being a hermit does lessen the essential nature of humanity, Knight chose to be a hermit, so has no excuse for the crimes he committed.

In fact, Knight didn't use any excuse for the crimes he committed. Christopher Knight admitted he was guilty and denied any bail money he was offered. Though many people all over America considered Knight a hero, Knight was a criminal. Knight showed signs or morality when he denied innocence and rejected help from others. When he was initially arrested, the jail was a circus, according to Chief Deputy Sheriff Ryan Reardon. People offered to repair cabins Knight had broken into, a women wanted to propose marriage, someone offered to let Knight live in his cabin, free of rent. Songs were recorded and restaurants named dishes after him. Many cultures have long considered hermits founts of wisdom (page 31), explorers of life's great mysteries(page 31), but other cultures regard hermits as cursed by the devil (page 31). Finkel explains Christopher Knight as someone to be respected and astonished by. Finkel believes that isolating yourself lets you dive into your inner depths (page 33), that may be profound or disturbing (page 33). Addressing the hermit, Christopher Knight's, perspective, the author, Michael Finkel believes that Knight didn't want his life to be remembered.

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What were the 3 Jim Crow Laws?

Jim Crow was not a real man he was a personal theater character by Thomas D. Rice and an ethnic deprivation in accordance with contemporary white ideas of African - American and their culture. Imparted by white democrat - dominated state legislators after the reconstruction period in the late 19th centuries. He was a black character that was played by a white man named Thomas D.Rice which was a white man. It was of a racial segregation in the Southern United States. The play was called Jumped Jim Crow!! Therefore, Jim Crow came about because of a fictional character, however, the impact it had on African Americans was far from fictional as these became laws that governed African Americans.

Jim Crow laws were state and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by conservative white Democrats-dominated state legislatures after the Reconstruction period, the laws were enforced until 1965(www.history.com).The legal principle of "separate, but equal" racial segregation was extended to public facilities and transportation, including the coaches of interstate trains and buses. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded, compared to the facilities for white Americans; sometimes there were no black facilities(www.history.com). As a body of law, Jim Crow institutionalized economic, educational, and social disadvantages for African Americans. Legalized racial segregation principally existed in the Southern states, while Northern racial segregation generally was a matter of fact enforced in housing with private covenants in leases, bank lending-practices, and employment-preference discrimination, including labor-union practices(www. history.com).

From the 1870s, Southern state legislators, no longer controlled by carpetbaggers and freedmen, passed laws requiring the separating in public transportation and schools. Generally, anyone of ascertainable or strongly suspected black ancestry in any degree was for that purpose a person of colour; the pre-civil War distinction favouring those whose ancestry was known to be mixedparticularly the half-French free persons of colour in Louisianawas abandoned. The segregation principle was extended to parks, cemeteries, theatres, and restaurants in an effort to prevent any contact between blacks and whites as equals.

In the South United States, Jim Crow laws and legal racial segregation in public facilities existed from the late 19th century into the 1950s. The civil rights movement was initiated by Southern blacks in the 1950s and 60s to break the prevailing pattern of segregation. In 1954, in its Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed the Plessy v. Ferguson 1896 decision justification of separate but equal facilities. It declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional. In the years following, subsequent decisions struck down similar kinds of Jim Crow legislation.

Jim Crow laws were any of enforced racial segregation in the American South between the end of Reconstitution in 1877 and the beginning of the civil rights movement in the 1950s. In its Plessy v. Ferguson decision in 1896. The U.S. Supreme court ruled that separate but equal facilities for African American did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment, ignoring evidence that the blacks were inferior to those intended to whites. Jim Crow laws sometimes, as in Florida, part of state constitutions mandated the segregation of public schools, public places, and public transportation, and the segregation of restrooms, restaurants, and drinking fountains for whites and blacks. The U.S. military was already segregated. President Woodrow Wilson, a Southern Democrat, initiated segregation of federal workplaces at the request of southern Cabinet members in 1913.These Jim Crow laws revived principles of the 1865 and 1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. Segregation of public (state-sponsored) schools was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education. In some states it took years to implement this decision. Generally, the remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, but years of action and court challenges have been needed to unravel the many means of institutional discrimination.
An African-American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 1939

The Jim Crow laws and the high rate of lynchings in the South were major factors which led to the Great Migration during the first half of the 20th century. Because opportunities were so limited in the South, African Americans moved in great numbers to cities in Northeastern, Midwestern, and Western states to seek better lives.

Despite the hardship and prejudice of the Jim Crow era, several black entertainers and literary figures gained broad popularity with white audiences in the early 20th century. They included luminaries such as tap dancers Bill "Bojangles" Robinson and the Nicholas Brothers, jazz musicians such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington and Count Basie, and the actress Hattie McDaniel (in 1939 she was the first black to receive an Academy Award when she won the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her performance as Mammy in Gone with the Wind)(www.history.com). African American athletes struggled in life because all of the negativity during the Jim Crow period. White opposition led to their exclusion from most organized sporting competitions.The boxers Jack Johnson and Joe Louis (both of whom became world heavyweight boxing champions) and track and field athlete Jesse Owens (who won four gold medals at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin) earned fame during this era. In baseball, a color line instituted in the 1880s had informally barred blacks from playing in the major leagues, leading to the development of the Negro Leagues, which featured many fine layers(www.history.com). A major breakthrough happened when Jackie Robinson was hired as the first African American to play major league baseball ; he permanently broke the color bar. Baseball teams continued to integrate in the following years, leading to the full participation of black baseball players in the Major Leagues in the 1960s(www.history.com). There was a color change between blacks and whites when on of his teammates put there arm around Robinson during the game and stood there and watched the crowd call them names till they finally relized that blacks and whites we the same just different skin color. So therefor Jim Crow was a big break through with African American life styles and for pro sports.

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Crypto Trading Tips for Millennials

In today's legacy financial markets, opportunities for millennials to be involved are slim. The barriers to entry for younger investors in the stock market, securities, and commodities trading are many. Between high fees, large investment minimums, and relatively small potential gains, there's not much incentive for young people to get involved in the market.

With cryptocurrency, however, there are many key factors which make it perfect for younger folks to jump in and start investing for the future. Lower trading costs, higher potential gains, and tech-heavy interfaces make cryptocurrency perfect for millennials.

In fact, around 58% of cryptocurrency investors are between the ages of 18 and 34, and 7 out of 10 millennials say they are likely to consider non-traditional financial markets.

But where to start? If you're a millennial who is considering jumping into the digital currency marketplace, we've assembled some tips to help you get started.

Learn how to navigate the cryptocurrency marketplace

The first thing you'll need to know is how to enter the market. There are some key concepts you'll want to get familiar with. First, you'll need to select a cryptocurrency exchange to buy bitcoin. You may also want to consider another currency, we recommend that you buy ethereum or another well established altcoin. Within the bitcoin marketplace, you can even find other places with bitcoin on sale, such as cryptocurrency ATMs.

Bitcoin was the first on the cryptocurrency market, so it is the most well established, and can be used in more places. Ethereum also has a wide range of uses, and is the underlying technology for many newer cryptocurrency offerings. You'll want to select the one that is the best gateway to a secondary investment that you're considering.

You'll also need to understand the concept of a cryptocurrency wallet. These can either be online, or offline. You are able to store your investment locally without it being online and susceptible to theft. It's very important that you keep the digital key code to access your wallet very safe. It's that code which guarantees future access to your investment.

Do not invest more than you are willing to lose

It's a key investment tip in general, but even more critical in the volatile world of cryptocurrency - do not invest more than you're willing to lose. About 40% of people 24-35 years old have at least $1000 in a savings account, and teen bitcoin millionaire Erik Finman says that millennials would be better off investing that money than letting it sit in a low yield savings account.

Time is on millennial investors side, and with that means you can absorb more risk. Finmane went on to explain that a short-term outlook is a common mistake of may first-time investors. Some of the recent swings in cryptocurrency value belie the long term potential.

The total cryptocurrency market capitalization stands at less than half-a-billion dollars, which is still only a small fraction compared to other more established financial markets. This means the potential for growth is still huge, especially in the long term.

Research, research, and more research

It is key to really understand the investments you're making. You should diligently research any currency before investing in it and pick ones that have a sound plan, a useful product, and show meaningful progress on developing their concept.

Many players in the cryptocurrency industry are looking to just ride the wave to short term gain, and don't really have much to offer from a solution standpoint. It's easy to get caught up in the hype around a new company, but make sure you know that it's a sound business idea that's backed up by talented and dedicated staff.

The more time and energy you spend researching your investment, the less time you'll need to spend managing or trading it, especially on a long-term investment strategy. Use your native knowledge about apps and interfaces to really analyze who has a winning product, and place your trust in that company.

Keep tabs on your investment

Even though you're shooting for a longer term strategy, you will want to stay up to date on what's happening with your investment. Don't get caught up in checking the day to day value of the investment, instead read ever press release, news article, and new product update from the company you're invested in. Follow all their social media and make sure you are on their mailing list.

You want to make sure the company is meeting its goals as far as product development, and staying on plan for fulfilling the promise of their given solution. By keeping tabs on the company, you'll be engaged with your investment at a higher level than just tracking the value, and you'll be able to predict rises and falls based on that knowledge.

You can also be active by signing up when the company rolls out a beta trial for an application or solution, or by participating in surveys or focus groups. You're invested in the company's success, so you should be as involved as possible.

Diversify your portfolio

Now that you're involved and active, and have a long term investment, you'll be following the market and be more responsive to trends. It's a good time to consider diversifying your investment and considering some short term strategies as well. You don't want to start out this way, but after you get a better understanding of the market, you're better positioned to make this transition.

There are two key ways you can diversify your portfolio, by asset class or length of investment. You can either invest in established coins (like Bitcoin, Ethereum, or Ripple,) Tokenized assets (such as blockchain based real-estate investments,) or ICOs (Initial Coin Offerings.) Each one offers a different risk/reward ratio, and requires the same level of diligent research.

By diversifying the length of investment, you can also increase your wealth at a higher rate. This will take more work, as short term trading requires more of your attention. You'll want to leave a large long term investment for security, and then take a smaller amount to start dabbling in shorter term plays.

Just get started!

Sometimes the biggest barrier to entry is a fear of the unknown. Take a small amount, and just jump in. Make sure you begin with a well established crypto asset, but by getting involved you'll begin to really learn about the market and investing.

With most crypto assets on the tail end of a long slide in value, many consider this a great time to get involved. The old adage buy low, sell high,' means that dips in the market are good opportunities to join in.

There aren't many facets of life where millennials feel like they have a ton of control over their future, but starting a cryptocurrency investment portfolio is one way you can actively own a piece of your financial future. What are you waiting for?

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Are Millennials Different from Otner Generations?

Fads, like swallowing live goldfish as a party trick and surfing on the hood of moving vehicles, may be on the list of college student contributions to America, but it cannot be denied that they have also contributed to the most important parts of modern history books such as the initiation of The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the final decision of Brown vs Board of Education. College students are renowned for their activism and protests: often being the cornerstone for large social movements. Even so, it is still not unusual for older generations to degrade the up-and-coming one. People tend to shy away and fight against change especially when it is their descendants that are at the fore front. Fear and discomfort are often the rivals of progress, but elder generations often forget where they were twenty, thirty, even forty years ago when they also push against these pressures for social reformations. The Millennials are hardly different from any other generation of young adults fighting their way through the barriers of society that often attempt to keep youngsters in check. Furthermore, society must stop ignoring the political and social activism that college students preach, they must remove the unnecessary boundaries placed by censorship and the increasing abasement of the youth must be reduced, otherwise, society will lose their front line in the war for progression.

For the newest spoiled generation of college students, the statistics show that they are more than willing to fight unreasonable odds to reach their goals such as racism, crime and violence, and debt. When students choose seats in class, they do not pick the one where they can hear the teacher, or the one in the back so they can relax. Students choose the one closes to an exit in case of a shooter like Chris Harper-Mercer, a shooter at a community college in Roseburg, Oregon, Adam Lanza of the Sandy Hook shooting. According to a report released by the US Department of Justice in 2014, 17 percent of college students had experienced some form of violence or harassment in the previous year. (Barnhardt) According to the director of the Center for Global Studies, Sophia A. McClennen, of Pennsylvania State University, of all college students, one third are the first of their families to attend a school for higher education, 43% are of color, 26% are undergraduates with dependent children, and of every five female students one will be sexually assaulted in college. Another study revealed that 79% of teachers are white (Douglas). To a student, these statistics are daily struggles. These issues are not the results of avid complaining, coddling of helicopter parents, or extreme sensitivities -these are real dangers the cause negative impacts on our students reaching towards higher education.

Many authorities have claimed that tough love is the solution to the struggles of students who are complaining (also recognized as students who are protesting.) This is not the solution. The prevalence of depression and anxiety symptoms among students is increasing globally [1-7].(Tran) Suicide, the most severe consequence of mental disorders, is the second highest cause of death among college students (behind car accidents), claiming the lives of more than 1,000 students a year. as mentioned in the article College Campus Safety. While it is true that students should not be babied, we must not impose more stress upon the students. This increase in mental illnesses applies to more than just anxiety and depression and cannot be ignored. Students are reaching points in their mental states of such extremities that they are unable to function normally. The approach to countering this growing issue would simply be to listen. Consider the young persons' point of view and refrain from berating them.

While it is simply important to recognize students as actual human beings facing common struggles that have important things to say, we must acknowledge the educational benefits of allowing students to participate freely in political topics and to speak their minds without disdain from their elders. Research has shown that students engaged in activism reap educational benefits such as developing an inclination to continue their political participation well into mid-life and acquiring a greater sense of social responsibility and identity consciousness. (Barnhardt)

In a society where censorship has become a requirement for any controversial issue, it is difficult to express and expand upon unpopular opinions. In an email written by a faculty member at Yale in 2015, it was said that censorship of Halloween costumes was entirely outlandish and offensive to the students of the community who want to enjoy their holiday (Christakis). This became a racial epidemic where students became extremely tense and divided. It is true that a hostile learning environment caused by offensive opinion could be avoided by the censorship but, this could also prevent students from learning how to handle themselves when they are offended and discourage students from standing up for their beliefs when they do not coincide with the popular opinion. The censorship remained.

Three years later students are being told that they are the most sensitive and coddled generation of college students. Their claims are being called lame and immature by older generations who claim that they were tougher and, ultimately, better than the youths they raised. As of 2018, a report by Gallup on the University of Nebraska revealed:

Twenty-eight percent of students said they did not feel comfortable expressing their political views in conversations with their professors, and 31 percent said they feel uncomfortable sharing unpopular ideas in class. In general, 35 percent said they feared offending people on campus by speaking their minds.

Some professors shared that anxiety; 25 percent of faculty members said they were uncomfortable encouraging discussions of unpopular ideas, and 36 percent said they worried about causing offense by speaking freely. (Kolowich)

As a community, we must reevaluate censorship in our school. Our millennials have been burdened with a barrier that prevents them from acknowledging reality and the effects are spiraling out into communities causing a wide spread state of ignorance. Topics such as racism, sex, gender preference, political standing, terrorism, etc... Should never be removed from a learning environment for potential offense and bias. Students must grow up with an open mind; therefore, removing these topics from school will render young people weak and naive. If a young person is raised in a society where sex is never discussed, then they would be left vulnerable to misleading rumors that could potentially change their life and that of others. If a young person is raised without mention of racism, they will be complete unsympathetic to marches in the name of equality. If a young person is denied proper education that could arm them with the most powerful weapon of knowledge, then they would be rendered useless to society and completely dependent upon others

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Millennials can’t Buy Property Soon Enough

Contents

Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Methods of Research
Discussion and Conclusion

Abstract

When we started this project we designed a survey to answer our original research question which was to determine whether or not there was a relation between how many people live in a home versus the cost of the mortgage payment or rent. From this we were attempting to prove that higher costs of living required more than one income thus leading to more people living in the house. However we did not have enough question that could narrow down how many people were actually making money in the house as opposed to a dependent.

Upon running multiple data tests we did find there was a relation between age group and homeownership. The questions that helped us determine this relationship were; what is your age and do you own or rent. It has been a topic of many studies that people have a much harder time today buying a house then people did 30 years earlier so I decided to take that piece of data and further research what the major causes of the decline in home ownership is.

Introduction

Within the last 30 years home prices have increased drastically while income has increased at a much slower rate. This has been attributed to much of the fault as to why home ownership rates are down and while it is a factor, there are also many more factors that have attributed to lower rates. So what does actually contribute to the decline in home ownership? Are we just making excuses or is there more to it? I have found that there is much more to it and I will discuss how marriage, kids, ethnicity, education and student loans impact the home ownership rates today.

Literature Review

In the article; Here's why millions of millennials are not homeowners. (Nova 2018) the author goes over several reasons why millennials are having a hard time buying a home. The number one reason for the drop in home ownership rate is the fact that millennials are getting married later than previous generations. This factor alone has an 18% negative impact on home ownership rates. This leads to having children later which contributes another 6% negative impact on home ownership rates. One of the main reasons for this is education. Instead of getting married and having children early, people are opting to get their degrees and professional lives together first. Student loan debt of 100K or more can lower the home ownership rate by 15%. So if you are a Hispanic female going through school using student loans and your not married or have any children then you have less than a 10% chance of owning a home during that time frame. Although education does lower home ownership rates for these reasons you are well worth waiting because the rates of home ownership for someone with a college degree are 71.4% compared to someone with a high school education has a 60.4% chance of being a home owner.

Another factor of lower home ownership rates that the article expresses is that Millennials are more ethnically diverse. Statistics from American Housing Survey state that in 2015 home ownership rates by race are as follows. White: 70.8%, Black: 42.2%, Asian, Pacific Islander: 56.6%, Hispanic: 45.4%, Other: 49.0%. What the statement implies is that a predominantly white community becomes a mixed community causing home ownership rates to go down.

There are two more factors the article talks about, one is the high prices of both homes and rent costs. The article states that most Millennials are rent burdened so its nearly impossible to save to buy a home. The last factor was actually a positive factor which shows that people that grow up with parents that are home owners increases their chance of buying a home by 10%. Growing up in that environment sets a standard in your mind that home ownership is the ultimate symbol of success so it becomes a higher priority in your mind.

Methods of Research

Initially what we did is constructed an 18 question survey to try and verify if there is a relation between housing cost and housing density. Once we determined our questions we sent a link through social media to try and reach out to as many people as possible. We choose this method because we wanted to get answers from a wide range area. The area of response was concentrated within the Los Angeles, Riverside, and Anaheim area.

After we gathered 40 surveys we converted the data to an excel sheet and eventually into IBMs SPSS system where we ran multiple T-test that were inconclusive and ran a chi square test. We were unfortunately not able to find a correlation between hosing costs and home density but we did however find a correlation between age and home ownership while running another chi square test. Through that chi square test we found there was a 0.011 asymptotic significance between age and home ownership which means there is a significant relationship between the two data sets. It also showed that out of the 40 surveys only 8 were home owners in which 7 of those were in the 29-68 category while only 1 was in the 18-28 category. The other 32 respondents were either renting or living with family. From this piece of data we changed our research question to; Does age have an impact on home ownership rates?

Discussion and Conclusion

As I began the research, I found there are multiple reasons for the decline in home ownership rates. Some of those reasons include, Income vs housing costs, the reduction of non-white families, overall decrease in married couples with kids, and most importantly the mortgage crash of 2008. I also found factors that increase home ownership rates such as an aging population and an increase in education, however the factors that increase home ownership rates are outweighed by the factors that decrease home ownership rates so there is currently a net loss from 1985.

The research done in the literature review shows multiple reason why there is a decline in home ownership but is it necessarily a bad thing? If you were optimistic you might say that this is not a problem at all, it is in fact encouraging to know that people are striving to become more educated. Studies show that people with a college degree have a 71.4% chance of being a home owner so even though home ownership rates of younger ages are effected initially, more people will eventually own homes in the future.

The lack of home ownership is a sign of a weakening economy but as more educated people enter the market the better we will be able to solve the issue and close the gap in affordability. We have many different case studies and articles built around the struggle of home ownership today and education is the key to understanding, studies should be reevaluated and questioned as to whether the implication are positive or negative in the immediate context or the future or both?

If I were to believe it was an issue I would research low income housing studies to find out what solutions are proposed because ultimately the reason younger people are not buying property is because they simply don't have the money for it.

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Meditation for Stress Reduction

During class there is always discussion about what people do to cope with stress, and this is something that varies for everyone. After reading through a few articles on the Internet I came across one that stood out to me in particular about a Harvard neuroscientist, Sara Lazar. The title of the article is Harvard neuroscientist: Meditation not only reduces stress, here's how is changes the brain. What I enjoyed about this article was it was an interview between the author and scientist going back and fourth over a series of questions. In the first few lines of the article Lazar discuses how she was training for the Boston marathon and do to a few injuries was told from a physical therapist that is would be best to take a break from running and stretch. She talked about how she then began to practice yoga and quickly realized how it was surprisingly very beneficial. But the few lines that stuck out to me personally were, The yoga teacher made all sorts of claims, that yoga would increase your compassion and open your heart. And I'd think, Yeah, yeah, yeah, I'm here to stretch. But then I started to notice I was calmer. These few lines caught my attention because I been in the same situation when I had to go to physical therapy and what I believed were pointless little exercise ended up being tremendously beneficial.

This article was written by Brigid Schulte, the director of the Better Life Lab at New America and the author of Overwhelmed: Work, Love and Play when No One has Time. Schulte is known as a journalist and author who writes' for publications that include The Washington Post, Slate, Time.com, the Guardian and many more. This article as I mentioned before was more written as an interview where Schulte went back and fourth with Sara Lazar a neuroscientist at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School. Lazar happened to be one of the first scientists to take the claims about the benefits of mediation and mindfulness and test them in brain scans. Between both backgrounds from these very intelligent women, many of the questions that were brought up and information within the article I believe is very informal for readers.

As I read through the article, I was fascinated how Lazar did her research to prove her point about how meditation not only reduces stress but also can change your brain. A few key points in the reading were how she conducted her research, what she found, and how long the process of meditation takes before changes began to show. Lazar had conducted two different types of studies, the first was long term mediators vs. a control group, the second by taking a group of people who'd never meditated before, and put one group through an eight-week mindfulness-based stress reduction course. The first study seemed to have gone as predicted, long term mediators have an increased amount of gray matter in the insula and sensory regions, the auditory and sensory cortex. Which to me makes senses, those people I feel show less stress and tend to be more aware because they are clam and relaxed. The second study for those who went through the eight-week course of meditation is where they found signs of the brain changing over a period of time. During that eight weeks they noted thickening in four regions. Those four regions includes the posterior cingulate (mind wandering, self relevance), the left hippocampus (learning, memory, emotional regulation), the temporal parietal junction (perspective talking, empathy, compassion) and the pons (where regulatory neurotransmitters are produced.) All four of these regions in just eight-weeks had shown change! Additionally the amygdala (the fight or flight area of the brain) had gotten smaller through the mindfulness-based reduction program. Based on Lazar study additional to meeting once a week for meditation, participants were asked to meditate once a day at home for roughly 40 minutes.

Overall I found this article incredibly interesting because it changed the way I thought about stress. By that I mean how important it is to take a small period of the day to just relax and do something that you feel is stress free. I feel inspired to try a meditation class! She also made clear for meditation that its important to find a good teacher Because its simple, but complex. You have to understand what's going on in your mind. A question that did come to mind was, aside from meditation because it may not be for everyone, what additional exercises may also show change in those four regions if practice for a period of time?a

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Primark Sustainability

Contents

NGO SHEVA & NGO REEDS
Textiles & Environmental Efforts

On April 24, 2013 in Dhaka Suburb which is a place in Savar, Bangladesh had an eight-story factory building collapse. 1,135 people were killed because this building was built on supposedly swampy unstable grounds combined with routine safety checks from the owner or the brands who sourced from them. This factory offered Western and other global companies duty-free access and low wages to its workers. You would think with this market emerging in Bangladesh, $28 billion a year to be e that they have still continued to support and aid their workers in Bangladesh. They have given out more than $14 million in aid and have worked with NGO's to make a positive change in their line of work and in the world. Primark was the number one company that provided more aid than any other company that was directly involved in the Rana Building collapse. [O'Connor, Clare. Forbes] Here are some of Primark's long term practices for their factories; long term compensation for workers and their dependents to their suppliers, provide financial education, and they have implemented programs with Bangladesh based NGO SHEVA and Dhaka University to teach how to invest to their factory employees. This collapse has sparked a train effect in the industry. The Bangladesh Accord has created a binding contract to push toward a safer garment industry in Bangladesh.

NGO SHEVA & NGO REEDS

Who are they? What do they do? NGO SHEVA was created in 1991 to empower women. They help women with employment in Bangladesh which then would improve their status economically as well as their living conditions. They are strongly focused on women in the workforce in garment factories since this industry has risen in Bangladesh. They keep corporates accountable for their workers in these factories. Primark is one corporate that has teamed up with them in this effort. [Sheva Nari O Shishu Kallyan Kendra]

Textiles & Environmental Efforts

Primark has been a brand to look up to with their sustainable practices and ethics. In addition to their progress with factories they have also made sure to use less damaging fabrics for the environment and less animal cruelty to create clothes. Primark officially stated on may 15, 2018 they will never use products that contain Mohair. They use sustainable cotton produced by independent cotton farmers in Pakistan and plan to teach other farmers they choose to work with how to produce their cotton sustainably. They have teamed up with NGO REEDS (the Rural Education and Economic Development Society) to help them educate Pakistanian Farmers how to produce sustainably for their Primark Stores. [Primark Newsletter] Primark has published their Restricted Substance List on their website. These items that are restricted have harmful chemicals in them so they have been restricted under Primark. They have listed their Chemical Inventory list which helps to eliminate hazardous chemicals and allows them monitor its usage. They allow you to see Primarks Chemical Management reports and case studies as well as their ZDHC wastewater Guidelines. These list contain thousands of listed names and numbers and graphs which make it impossible to list here. A link to click will be in the works cited page if anyone wishes to view each individual PDF. The same month in May 2018 they became apart of the Ellen MacArthur Foundation. This is a step to reduce their impact on the environment. Other notable companies in this act are H&M, Nike, Gap, and Burberry. Their participation will have them keeping their products in use through recycling. They will have materials that are renewable and safe for the environment, people, and animals; as well as taking their old clothes or their donated clothes and turning them into new clothes. [The Ellen Foundation]

What exactly is the Ellen MacArthur Foundation? They are a foundation that is dedicated to making fashion circular. Clothes today are being wasted which is polluting the Earth. Their mission? To make clothes from safe and renewable materials by having companies recycle old clothes and create a new item with it. This initiative was launched in May 2017 to bring together NGO's and brands. On July 11,2018 Primark has officially certified all its cosmetics as cruelty free. The entire Primark range is cruelty free. This is not limited to only their makeup though, this includes their skin care and haircare lines. You can see yourself by locating the leaping Bunny logo on the back of every Primark Product sold. The leaping bunny logo is protected under and by the Cruelty Free International. They are the number one leaders in ending animal cruelty and experiments worldwide. Timeline Of Support as listed and captured from Primark Website This timeline was established in 2013 after a building in Bangladesh collapsed.

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Operationalize Sustainability for Clif Bar & Company

Contents

Introduction
Analysis
References

Introduction

Clif Bar & Company is a family and employee owned American company that consist of the CLIF BAR, CLIF Kid and LUNA brands which produce foods and drinks made with nutritious and organic ingredients. The company was founded in 1992 and is owned by Gary Erickson and Kit Crawford who are married to each other. Clif Bar & Company is committed to sustaining its people, brands, business, community and the planet and believes in building a healthy and resilient company. By doing so, it enables them to invest in the long term, be a catalyst for change, and do more for the world.

On a map, the ‘red roads’ are the busy roads, full of noise, vehicles and exhaust. On the hand, ‘white roads’ are the smaller, less travelled roads full of beauty and great adventure. Clif is a company that has chosen to travel on the white roads. One specific example is when founder Gary Erickson turned down an offer of $120 million to sell his business in 2000. He understood that it was imperative for Clif to stay private in order to grow naturally and to sustain itself over time – purpose guiding profit and patience over greed. “Companies on the leading edge of sustainability strategy will be more likely to succeed in this uncertain world going forward” (Farver, p. 133, 2013). Clif Bar & Company is an example of such a company as it works on reducing their ecological footprint in everything they do.

Neither Erickson nor Crawford care to talk about Clif Bar & Company’s revenue publicly, but the company is estimated to have had a growth rate of more than 20 percent in recent years, with over $700 million in 2016 revenues (Scott, 2017). According to its most recent annual report, the company has a 17% 10-year compounded annual growth rate and holds 31% of the market share in the Health & Lifestyle Bar category (Clif Bar & Company, 2018).

Analysis

Measurement

According to their company website, Clif Bar & Company is a business with “a different kind of bottom line.” The company is guided by their values, which Clif Bar & Company refer to as their Five Aspirations and it is clear that there is a definitive presence for sustainability within the organization. Farver (2013) emphasizes that “Mainstreaming sustainability throughout a company is simply good business” (p. 5). Clif Bar & Company realizes that running a company based on their Five Aspirations – ‘Sustaining Our Business, Our Brands, Our People, Our Community, and the Planet’ – is a challenging way to do business. (Clif Bar & Company, 2018). Clif Bar & Company is committed to this business model means balancing their investments for the long term, creating brands with integrity, helping their employees thrive, empowering their communities, and conserving and restoring the resources they depend on.

In the text, The Necessary Revolution, the authors state that “the successful companies of the future will be those that integrate business and employees’ personal values” (Senge, Smith, Kruschwitz, Laur, & Schley, 2010). Based on their performance over the past twenty-five years, Clif Bar & Company is a great example of a successful company of the future. Clif Bar & Company is no stranger to being awarded for its commitment to sustainability. In 2017, the company received two 2017 Green Power Leadership awards — one for Excellence in Green Power Use from the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and a second for Leadership in Green Power Education from the Center for Resource Solutions (Baking Business, 2017). Most recently, Clif Bar & Company was recognized as the recipient of the 2018 Rabobank Award for Leadership in Sustainability (Rufus, 2018).

Social

“Leaders are people who ‘walk ahead’ and are committed to making deep changes in themselves and in their organizations. They naturally influence others through their credibility, capability, and commitment (Senge et al, 2010, p.159). In addition to the Five Aspirations, the company also adheres to Five Ingredients as well: Create, Connect, Inspire, Own It, and Be Yourself (Clif Bar & Company, 2016). The ingredients are carefully chosen words and phrases that remind their employees that they are a big part of the success at Clif Bar. The ingredients encourage their 1,100 employees to standout as individuals, to listen to one another, and to connect with each other through their values, ideas, and points of view. ""When the creative orientation is primary, life becomes a journey of bringing into reality what you truly care about and addressing the many practical problems that arise along the way"" (Senge et al, 2010, p. 50). Former CEO Kevin Cleary adds that being employed at Clif Bar & Company is not only about supporting the company’s purpose, it about finding your own purpose, bringing it to life, and sharing it with others (Clif Bar & Company, 2016). “To achieve a just society, we have to reason together about the meaning of the good life to create a hospitable public culture” (Sandel, 2010, p. 261).

The company is a dog-friendly and child-friendly workplace with subsidized onsite day care for kids up to 6 years old. Through their Sustainability Benefits program, the Clif Bar supports their employees on their personal journeys toward sustainability by offering cash incentives to employees for the purchase of fuel efficient hybrids or electric vehicles (over 430 purchased to date), commuter bikes, and energy-saving home improvements (Clif Bar & Company, 2018). Fiscally speaking, the company provides a 100% match of up to 5% or the employees annual earnings in addition to Clif Bar & Company’s Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP) which is a generous retirement benefit created by the owners and is directly linked to the success of the company (Clif Bar & Company, 2017). Other perks of the company include 2.5 hours per week to work out at the company gym, Friday morning bike rides for everyone from 9 to 11 am, the company incents the employees to contribute a minimum of 20 hours a year towards charities within the community as well. All these incentives and benefits have contributed to a high retention percentage, with a voluntary turnover rate of less than three percent (Quackenbush, 2017).

Environmental

In Farver’s (2013) view, protecting the environment has both social and economic benefits (p. 96). In regards to the environment, Clif Bar & Company believes in conserving and restoring the planet’s natural resources by growing a business in harmony with nature. The company is headquartered in the EmeryTech Building in Emeryville, California which they have called home since 2010. The 115,000 square-foot headquarters has received LEED Platinum Certification and exemplifies Clif Bar’s core values as the space functions as a medium to narrate their story of community stewardship, while visibly promoting green design strategies that reduce its environmental footprint (DPR Construction, 2012). The company is 100% green power for electricity used at all facilities with approximately 80% of the electricity at their headquarters is generated by a 500-kW rooftop solar array (EPA, 2018). When the rooftop ws installed in 2010, it was the largest smart solar array in North America.

According to the company’s 2017 Annual Report (Clif Bar & Company, 2018), to date the company has avoided over 850,000 miles of truck driving by switching to rail transport, which reduces carbon emissions by 70% over conventional trucking. Additionally, the Clif Bar & Company have been moving towards zero waste at its headquarters, bakeries and distribution centers with a 2020 goal of 90% or more waste diversion from landfills and incineration. As of 2017, the company announced that it has almost reached its goal by achieving an 89% waste diversion in 2017 (Clif Bar & Company, 2018). Furthermore, the company has utilized 100% recycled paperboard cartons since 2003 and implemented a 10% packaging reduction of Clif Bar’s wrapper in 2016. Finally, Clif Bar supported the development of 36 renewable and energy efficiency projects, including five school-owned wind turbines in Indiana, inspiring a new, statewide clean-energy curriculum available to grades K-12 (Clif Bar & Company, 2018).

Conclusion

I agree with Erickson who stated, ""I think the most important lesson a small business can learn is to be patient for growth, but impatient for profitability"" (Smith, 2017). Clif Bar & Company has gone above and beyond the traditional triple bottom line; it has engrained the values into how they conduct their daily business through their Five Aspirations which serves as their business model. Additionally, the company is a champion of taking the road less traveled as they continue to resist the corporate greed which surrounds them, as evident of rival companies being bought out by industry giants such as Nestle and General Mills.

The one concern that I do have regarding company is their plan of succession as a leadership transition can be a vulnerable time for companies. Great preparation and development is vital for this company to have continued success; planning that make take years even to include an overlap period where both Erickson and Crawford may monitor the progress of potential candidates. Succession planning is about managing risk associated with any type skills or knowledge gap and it ought to be an intentional and thoughtful process. One way to achieve succession planning is by creating an organizational talent pool which consists of their current employees whose values are aligned with the succession strategy, coupled with the potential to step into the future role (Talent Guard, 2018). This company is a true diamond in the rough and it would be a shame for such a great company to place in a positon they failed to prepare for.

References

Baking Business. (2017, December 24). Clif Bar wins two Green Power Leadership awards. Retrieved from https://www.bakingbusiness.com/articles/32914-clif-bar-wins-two-green-power-leadership-awards

Business Wire. (2017, March 02). Clif Bar & Company receives 2017 Climate Leadership Award for Supply Chain Efforts from the US EPA. Retrieved from https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170302006137/en/Clif-Bar-Company-Receives-2017-Climate-Leadership

Clif Bar & Company. (2018). All aspirations annual report 2017: Growing a different kind of company. Retrieved from https://issuu.com/clifbar/docs/clif_all_aspirations_report_2017

Clif Bar & Company. (2017). All aspirations annual report 2016: Growing a different kind of company. Retrieved from https://issuu.com/clifbar/docs/aareport_2015

Clif Bar & Company. (2016). All aspirations annual report 2015: Thank you for 25 years of adventure in business. Retrieved from https://issuu.com/clifbar/docs/2016_all_aspirations_report_final

DPR Construction. (2012, May 17). Clif Bar & Company's headquarters - LEED platinum. Retrieved from https://www.dpr.com/media/blog/clif-bar-companys-headquarters-leed-platinum

EPA. (2018, October 09). 2017 past award winners. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/greenpower/2017-past-award-winners

Farver, S. (2013). Mainstreaming corporate sustainability. Cotati, California: GreenFix, LLC.

Quackenbush, G. (2017, March 03). Clif Bar's happy employees mean happy customers. Retrieved from https://www.northbaybusinessjournal.com/northbay/marincounty/6730951-181/clif-bar-marin-conference-business-journal

Rufus, A. (2018, December 12). Clif Bar wins sustainability award. Retrieved from https://www.oaklandmagazine.com/Clif-Bar-Wins-Sustainability-Award/

Sandel, M. (2010). Justice: What’s the right thing to do? New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Senge, P., Smith, B., Kruschwitz, N. Laur, J. & Schley, S. (2010). The necessary revolution: How individuals and organizations are working together to create a sustainable world. New York, NY: Broadway Business Publishing.

Smith, S. (2017, April 21). Gary Erickson guided Clif Bar's rise by taking the road less traveled. Retrieved from https://www.investors.com/news/management/leaders-and-success/gary-erickson-guided-clif-bars-rise-by-taking-the-road-less-traveled/

Talent Guard. (2018, October 10). Building an organizational talent pool to support your succession planning. Retrieved from https://talentguard.com/building-an-organizational-talent-pool-to-support-your-succession-planning/

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Medellin Sustainability

Contents

Abstract
Introduction
Past History Of Medellin
Problems In Medellin
What They Are Doing To Fix It
UDHR
Conclusion/Solutions
Citation Page

Abstract

Medellin was one of the worst cities in the world in the 1980’s and 1990’s. This was due to an increased amount of illegal gang activity. The government in Medellin to change the environment for the better. The way they did this was by introducing some development goals that were set to decrease crime rates and improve total quality of life. Things that were done by the government were things like introducing new forms of transportation and fixing old ones. The government made these goals that connected with the 21st article in the United Declaration of Human Rights. The government has made lots of improvements but there can be more things done to further improve the quality of life for the people.

Introduction

Medellin has changed a lot since the 1980’s and the 1990’s. Back then there were crimes everyday and people dying daily. This was due to all the gang related activity happening there. Medellin is in Colombia where it is always warm weather there in colombia. This meaning that there is nothing to deter crime. In Medellin the temperature does not change a whole lot “During an average day in the city the temperature typically ranges from 63.2 to 82.1 °F”(Weather and Climate in Medellín: The City of Eternal Spring. (2017, May 26). This means that even in the coldest months it is still not freezing cold. In places where the temperature changes and it becomes cold crime rates decrease because it can be too cold for crime to happen but this does not happen in colombia it is a constant weather year round however, in Medellin there are two rainy seasons where it can rain for most of the season. It can rain up to 21 days a month in those rainy seasons (Weather and Climate in Medellín: The City of Eternal Spring. (2017, May 26) .Even with all the violence in Medellin the government decided to try to decrease the crime rates in medellin by introducing Development goals that had targets that they had to accomplish by a certain year. Medellin wanted to become more sustainable and to become more urbanized. In the development goal they have implemented a some different things to help decrease crime and increase the urbanization of Medellin. There has been lots of development goals happening in Medellin throughout the years.

Past History Of Medellin

In the 1980’s to the 1990’s Medellin was known as one of the most violent city in the world. This was due to all the illegal activities that were being done in the area. Gangs took over the area and created a lot of crimes at very high rates. Pablo Escobar was the leader of the gang that was fighting with the government. The cartel sells drugs “Medellin is one of the most violentcities in the world because of the cocaine cartel”(Farah, D. (1991, March 10). Drugs are a big market of selling because there are always going to be people who want a certain drug and are willing to pay top dollar for it. This is why the drug cartels are successful because people want what they have. The cartels have many people killed to protect themselves and everyone that works for them. According to a Medellin spokesperson they said that there were only 1200 deaths in that year. People did not believe him because lots of killings go left unreported so thereis a higher number of murders depending on who is asked “In 1990, according to police figures, 4,637 people were murdered in Medellin, up from 4,141 in 1989.”(Farah, D. (1991, March 10). There was an increased amount of people killed during the years in the 1990’s. Many people were dying at the hands of cartels in those years; however the Government wanted to change those statistics and decided to make development goals in wish of lowering crime rates and increasing urbanization.

Problems In Medellin

Problems in Medellin were mostly associated with all the gang activity that was happening at the time. These gangs killed thousands of people every month at gunpoint for what looked like to be no reason “in April, when killings surged to as many as 40 a day”Farah, D. (1991, March 10). This meaning that lots of people were dying daily this number is one of the highest numbers in the world. Another problem in Medellin is the environment this meaning that the way they live in is bad they have bad air quality and other problems. These problems include“ significant problems associated with transport–such as energy consumption, air pollution, the excessive growth of car ownership, congestion, accidents” also things like bad use of green spaces or deterioration of green spaces amongst other things.

What They Are Doing To Fix It

The government in Medellin wanted to fix these problems and so they came up with a development goal to help accomplish the things they wanted to change. So they implemented “the Development Plan 2016–2019–‘Medellin is counting on you’”(Andrews, J. (2017, May 31).With this plan they wanted to increase the amount of transportation a person can use. In this planthey wanted to integrate the systems from a larger transportation system into their system to make it better for the people using it making it more widespread and accessible to the people who wanted to use it. Doing these things would increase the quality of life that the people felt and make the people overall more happy to live there. Things the government of Medellin plan to do “The city is looking to achieve infrastructure that favours the movement of people using non-motorised modes of transport;”(Andrews, J. (2017, May 31). This means that the government wanted to add more things like bikes and other ways of transportation that did not include motors and that would benefit the environment. Other things that would be done would be “Strengthening the use and culture of public Transportation”(Andrews, J. (2017, May 31).

The government wanted to improve the conditions regarding accessibility and road safety of the population. By doing this not everyone will need a car and can rely more on the public transportation. This is good because with everyone having a car the streets were becoming more and more crowded and it became harder to move around. Another thing According to Andrews with everyone having cars this decreased the air quality in Colombia because there was more exhaust fumes coming out of cars because there were more cars around. How Medellin Is During The GoalMedellin is in the development goal right now ‘Medellin is counting on you’. With this goal they have increased the quality of life for the people that live there .The government's approach was ”Medellin has successfully implemented an integrated and multi-sector approach that has included a combination of violence prevention programs”(Ijjasz-Vasquez, E. (2017, July10). They split of the city into different parts and looked at them individually and added what needed to be added to the city to make it better for the people whether it be crime prevention or something else. They did these things so they can make a better and more livable city for the people there. They implemented cable cars and added the system “MetroPlús, which is fully integrated with the existing underground metro and cable car systems, EnCicla bike share”(Medellín: A Leader in Sustainable Transport. (2014, September 04). This system helped the people get around the city of Medellin more easily than before because now they borrow a bike or take the public transportation which will reduce the congestion due to all the cars and increase the air quality. During the goal they have added and remade parks and green spaces “1.6million square meters of new public space, including 25 new parks and 11 new promenades.(Medellín: A Leader in Sustainable Transport. (2014, September 04). The government wants to make the city better so people can enjoy living there. Before there was a bad system of transportation and lots of crimes. During the development goal the transportation system is beingupgraded and the crimes rates are being reduced. The car emissions were decreased a lot “Vehicle exhaust emission control and sulphur content improvement”(Sustainable Transport Award - Medellin - United Nations Partnerships for SDGs platform. (n.d.). This meaning that thegovernment is making new laws for car companies.

UDHR

The development connects with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The development goal connects with Article 21 in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 21 states “Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly”(Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (n.d.). Therefore people can participate in the government themselves or have people that they voted for participate. So people going to the government to get bills passed and talking about things to do is participating in the government. People do not have to be elected officials to take place in the government. This is what the 21st article says, everyone has a equal right to participate.

Conclusion/Solutions

Medellin is already becoming better than it was in the past due to the government trying to make it better. Somethings that can be further done to improve the conditions for people who live in Medellin will be to further enhance the fuel efficiency of the cars that are driven for example like the public transportation and the privately owned cars. This will decrease the amount of exhaust that is produced and help to increase the air quality in Medellin. Another thing would be to add more green spaces and parks for people. By adding more public spaces forpeople life quality can be improved for people because they will believe that the government is trying to better the city. Colombia has done a lot to improve the overall condition that the people live in by “focusing on the improvement of public spaces, enhancing physical connectivity, and expanding education.”(Medellín: A Story of Transformation. (2018, October 26). This means that people are becoming smarter because they are improving technology and public spaces and other things that make a person overall life quality higher.

Citation Page

Andrews, J. (2017, May 31). Why Medellin is 'counting on' citizens to improve its sustainability.Retrieved from https://cities-today.com/why-medellin-is-counting-on-citizens-to-improve-its-

Running Head: Sustainability In Medellin9sustainability/Ijjasz-Vasquez, E. (2017, July 10). How is Medellin a model of urban transformation and social resilience? Retrieved from https://blogs.worldbank.org/sustainablecities/how-medellin-model-urban-transformation-and-social-resilienceFarah, D. (1991, March 10). RECORD MURDER WAVE OVERWHELMS MEDELLIN. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/03/10/record-murder-wave-overwhelms-medellin/5e7f1080-1ea0-46e8-bfef-1ab4df9d53d0/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.a2786f1db350How Medellín's Most Crime-Ridden Area Became a Top Tourist Destination. (2018, April 11). Retrieved from https://www.insightcrime.org/news/analysis/medellin-most-crime-ridden-area-top-tourist-destination/Medellín: A Story of Transformation. (2018, October 26). Retrieved from https://blog.iese.edu/cities-challenges-and-management/2018/10/26/medellin-a-story-of-transformation/Medellín: A Leader in Sustainable Transport. (2014, September 04). Retrieved from https://www.itdp.org/2012/04/03/medellin-a-leader-in-sustainable-transport/

Running Head: Sustainability In Medellin10Sustainable Transport Award - Medellin - United Nations Partnerships for SDGs platform. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=2246Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/Warnock-Smith, A. (2016, May 13). Story of cities #42: Medellín escapes grip of drug lord to embrace radical urbanism. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/may/13/story-cities-pablo-escobar-inclusive-urbanism-medellin-colombiaWeather and Climate in Medellín: The City of Eternal Spring. (2017, May 26). Retrieved from https://medellinliving.com/weather-climate/

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Amelia Earhart: One of the most Influential Women

Amelia Earhart could profoundly be named one of the most influential women of the early 1900's. With the very little time she had, she became a well-known ambitious role model to women all around the world. Especially because of her successful solo flight crossing the Atlantic, and her being the first woman to do it; but sadly her time as an aviatrix was shortened.

Amelia Earhart was born in Atchison, Kansas on July 24, 1897. As a little girl she was faced some challenges, her father struggled from alcoholism, which caused her mother to leave her father and take Amelia and her sister with her. She graduated while living in Chicago, and went to a college in Philadelphia known as the Ogontz school. This was the first time she saw an amputee, because of that she left school to become a volunteer nurse until the war had ended. It wasn't until she'd moved back with her parents now living in California, that she had gone on her first airplane ride at an air show in 1920, in her biography, Amelia Earhart Biography, Amelia declared "As soon as we left the ground," she said, "I knew I had to fly."

She began to partake in lessons, Earhart was taught by Neta Snook at California's Kinner Field. Then a year later, she got her license from the NAA. Two years later, with the help of others and working multiple jobs, she was able to afford her own plane. During this time female aviators were called to for a flight across the Atlantic; Amelia took part in it, and became the first female to fly solo over the Atlantic. With this newfound fame, she met Putnam whom became her manager, and soon to be husband. He is the one who arranged her tours,flights, and speeches, but people began to view her as just a puppet to Putnam, which greatly angered her. Because of these accusations, she went on expeditions by herself to prove she wasn't just Putnam's unskilled aviator, but one of great skill.

One of the expeditions she took to prove herself was on the Lockheed Electra from Newfoundland, Canada, to Ireland which was not very easy to navigate alone, and she completed it in record breaking time too. She broke countless records even some that were set previously by herself. Earhart also published many books such as, The Fun of It, 20Hrs., 40min.and, Last Flight,. Her books were mainly about her journeys and experiences on her voyages, and her strong passion for flight.

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Biography of Amelia Earhart

Childhood

On July 24, 1897, a baby was born. Amy and Edwin Earhart were welcoming a new child into their life. They didn't know this child would be an amazing pilot. Amelia and her sister had a hard time growing up. The drinking of their father's cost him a really good job working on the railroads. Later, her mom and dad split up. Amelia and her sister chose to go with their mom. They moved to Chicago. Later, her sister went to college in Canada. When Amelia went up to visit her once, she met a group of World War 1 veterans that had been wounded during battle. She decided to be a nurse.

Motivations/Learning

By 1920, Amelia's parents were back together, and their family moved to California. There, Amelia payed to take a ten minute flight. This made her want to fly. She worked multiple jobs to make money. She used this money to buy flight lessons with a pilot named Anita Snooks. After some time, she had to raise more money to get a plane for herself.

The Flights

A few years later, Captain Hilton Railey offered for Amelia to get flown from America, to the other side of the atlantic Ocean. Though she didn't technically fly the plane, she was still the first woman to cross the Atlantic by use of a plane, and got all of the media attention. A few years later, Amelia flew across the Atlantic on her own, setting a record time of thirteen hours and thirty minutes.

Other facts

Amelia participated in a women's air race, a few years later in her life. She then founded the Ninety-niners, a woman's piloting organization.

Death

Amelia died when, in June of 1937, she took one last flight. She was going to go around the world. She took off in Miami, Florida, then landed in South America, then took off again there. She went to Africa, crossing the Sahara, then went to Thailand and Australia, then to New Guinea. On the way to New Guinea, the Coast Guard lost contact with her plane, and Amelia, or her plane, were never seen again.

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A Persona of Amelia Earhart

Amelia Earhart was a well known pilot around since she was a women. She accomplished many great things. In her biggest flying mission yet, she disappeared. What happened to her? No one knows. But first let us Start from the start of her life.

Her parents -Edwin and Amy Earhart- welcomed Amelia to their home as a first child on July 24, 1897. Her home was in Atchison, Kansas. 3 years later, she too did welcome a baby girl to her home as her younger sister. Her name was Muriel. Their childhood was tough. Her father's drinking got him fired from his well paid job. The girls and their mother left to Chicago shortly after. Her mom and dad had split up.

In 1917, Amelia traveled to Canada. There she would visit her sister. During her visit, she saw hurt soldiers. She now has second thoughts about college. She wanted to be a nurse and help injured people like the soldiers she saw. So, she started nursing at a Soldier's Hospital.

In 1920, her parents got together again and moved to california. Amelia decided to move to California as well. For $1, Amelia went on a 10 minute ride on a plane over Los Angeles. She said, As soon as we left the ground, I knew I myself had to fly. To pay for flying lessons, she had to work a lot of extra jobs for money. Pilot Anita Shooks was her teacher. She soon wanted to buy her own plane.

Amelia received a phone call in 1927. Captain Hilton Railey had an offer she could not say no to. In 1928 she flew over the Atlantic by herself. This made her the first women to do so.Though Amelia was not the pilot, the newspaper ignored the 2 men that pilotes and she got the attention.

4 years later, her new goal was to fly over the Atlantic on her own. It took 13 hours and 30 minutes. Now she was famous throughout europe and the U.S.A. A few years later, she flew from Hawaii to california putting her the first woman to do so.

She also participated in a cross-country air race. She founded women pilots called the Ninety-Nines because of their 99 members.

In 1937, she wanted to fly around the world. She set out with her navigator Fred Nooran to Thailand and Australia. Taking off in New Guinea, the U.S coast guard lost all contact with her. With that, there was no trace of them ever found. And the passengers? Never found again. That is why Amelia Earhart was famous and mysterious.

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A Role Model of Amelia Earhart

Oh Amelia Earhart. You've heard of her, right? In 1897, Amelia was born to a mother named Amy, and a father named Edwin, and a sister named Muriel. Amelia had a hard childhood. Her father was drinking. If you don't know what Drinking means, it means that her father was drinking a lot of alcohol. Because he was drinking a lot of alcohol, he didn't have a good job. Not having a good job means no good money. Which tore Amelia's family apart. Amelia's mom could not handle it anymore. So the girls, Amelia, Amy, and Muriel, moved to chicago. I don't know how Amelia did it. No father in her life for a few years. I couldn't have been able to do that. So here proves, Amelia was a trooper from the beginning. It was a 40 minute plane ride. It payed $1. (Which was a lot of money back then.) As soon as we left the ground, I knew I, myself had to fly! Says Amelia Earhart. This was when, it all started.

In 1920, Amelia's mom and dad got back together. Now that they were back together, the

Earhart family decided to move to California, Los Angeles. I guess they needed some warm weather! By this time Amelia was now 23 years old. She needed a job. So Amelia got one. Not even one, several. She worked several jobs to earn some money. You would think Amelia would want to be saving money for college, but no. Amelia decided to not go to college. Instead she was saving all her money for flying lessons with her friend, Anita Snooks. I think Anita really motivated Amelia to start flying.

In 1927, was the day that changed Amelia's life. She got a phone call from the one and only, Captain Hilton Railey. He said, he could make Amelia the first woman to fly a plane. Amelia could not pass down this opportunity. One year later, Amelia actually did it! Not only was she the first woman to fly a plane, she was the first woman for a lot of things. Amelia was the first woman to fly from Hawaii to California.

Two years later, 1929, Amelia competed in the Cross Country Air Race for Woman. It is a founded organization called the Ninety-Nines You know, 99's. The name was named after the first 99 members. Which I think is pretty clever.

In 1934, Amelia even flew across the Atlantic ocean. I know, not that big of a deal. She just rode on a plane. Wrong! Amelia flew across the Atlantic Ocean by herself! On her own! The total flight was 13 hours and 30 minutes. Amelia is famous now! I think that is a good accomplishment. I would never be able to do that.

June of 1937, Amelia went on a quest. She went to fly all across the world. SHe was very determined. Amelia thought she had a pretty good chance. She thought wrong. Amelia Earhart never came back. Amelia's wheels never touched the gravely runway. No one knows what happened to her and the plane. Her passengers were also not found. We remember Amelia today as a role model. She didn't let anything keep her from doing what she loves. Flying.

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About the Trail of Tears

The Question of this project: How was the journey to finding rights, for the Cherokee nation?

The journey to obtaining rights as a Cherokee nation was a long a rough journey. The Cherokee people had 53,000 square miles of land in Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama combined but in 1802 white settlers, and President Thomas Jefferson began looking at removing the Cherokee tribe from their lands (GPB n.d.).

In the court case Worcester v. Georgia, the Cherokee Nation looked to get a federal injunction against the laws passed by the state of Georgia because these laws denied them the rights and privileges from within the state. One year later the U.S. Supreme court ruled that the Cherokee Nation was sovereign. In other words, the state of Georgia had no right to enforce any of their state laws in the Cherokee territory. Andrew Jackson, who was President at that time, rejected the ruling of this case and ordered the removal of the Cherokee nation. The United States army forces were used in certain instances to round them up. This elimination and journey is called The Trail of Tears. Out of the 15,000 Cherokee people who left, 4,000 died on the way to Indian Territory but what is now the state of Oklahoma (FJC n.d.).

These past couple paragraphs are the official take on what happened but there is also the point of view of someone who went through it herself and her name was Margaret McGurie. In this interview she went on to explain in detail, how it was on the journey. She said, The Cherokees had to walk; all the old people who were too weak to walk could ride in the Government wagons that hauled the food and the blankets which they allowed to have. It goes on to say that the food on the Trail of Tears was horrible and there was not very much of it, so often the Indians had to go two days without water. This trail started in Georgia and went across Kentucky, Tennessee, and through Missouri all the way to Old Fort Wayne which was built as a shelter for the Indians until houses were built (Montiero 1837).
As a conclusion it is clear that the Cherokee Indians went through a lot just to get rights. I would need information on

Works Cited

FJC. n.d. Federal Judicial Center. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.fjc.gov/history/timeline/cherokee-nation-v.-georgia.

The Federal Judicial Center produced and maintains this site in furtherance of its statutory mission. The Center regards the contents of this site to be responsible and valuable. The Court ruled four years later in Worcester v. Georgia that the Cherokee Nation was a separate political entity that could not be regulated by the state, and that only the federal government had authority to regulate the use of Indian land.

GPB. n.d. Judgement Day. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h1567.html.

PBS is America's largest classroom, the nation's largest stage for the arts and a trusted window to the world. In addition, PBS's educational media helps prepare people for success in school and opens up the world to them. Their main goal is to fulfill our essential mission to the American public, providing trusted programming that is uniquely different from commercial broadcasting and treating audiences as citizens, not simply consumers. For 15 consecutive years, a national study has rated PBS as the most-trusted institution in America.

Montiero, Lorrie. 1837. Sequoyah Research Center. August 20. Accessed November 4, 2018.
https://ualrexhibits.org/tribalwriters/artifacts/Family-Stories-Trail-of-Tears.html.

The collections of the University of Arkansas at Little Rock's Sequoyah National Research Center constitute the largest assemblage of Native American expression in the world. Our mission, to acquire and preserve the writings and ideas of Native North Americans, is accomplished through collecting the written word and art of Native Americans and creating a research atmosphere that invites indigenous peoples to make the Center an archival home for their creative work.

Oyez. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.oyez.org/cases/1832/2.

Oyez a free law project from Cornell's Legal Information Institute (LII), Justia, and Chicago-Kent College of Lawis a multimedia archive devoted to making the Supreme Court of the United States accessible to everyone. It is the most complete and authoritative source for all of the Court's audio since the installation of a recording system in October 1955. Oyez offers transcript-synchronized and searchable audio, plain-English case summaries, illustrated decision information, and full-text Supreme Court opinions (through Justia). Oyez also provides detailed information on every justice throughout the Court's history and offers a panoramic tour of the Supreme Court building, including the chambers of several justices.

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Native Americans and the Trail of Tears

Long before Christopher Columbus sailed the ocean blue in 1492 was a time when North America was the unknown except to the natives who were already living there. He called the natives Indians because he thought he had reached India. Fast-forward a couple of hundred years people were trying to get away from England to have religious freedom and came to North America to start their own country and their own rules. Realizing the need for more land, the US government wanted to make the move west. Eventually, they were so land hungry they forced five civilized Indian Tribes off their land and moved them to Oklahoma at any cost necessary. Thousands of Native Americans died during the move which is now known as the Trail of Tears. This all started back in 1803 when the Governor of Tennessee John Sevier wrote a letter to the Cherokee Warriors asking them if it would be ok to build a road through their territory. The road would be paid for and built by the US government, but the road would benefit the Cherokee more then the settlers that were going to be using the road. The settlers informed the Cherokee that the council in Tennessee was waiting for their reply. Then in 1817 Tennessee Governor Joseph McMinn spoke in front of the Tennessee council and in front of the Cherokee Nation about moving the Native Americans east of the Mississippi and civilizing them due to the treaty that was signed in 1817. The treaty gave them the option two options and that was either removal or citizenship. If they chose to move, then they the US would give them land that was like the land that they were currently living on. Which tells me that there was no acreage limit and if they choose to stay where they were they would be forced to move and forced to become US citizens and be granted over 600 acers in land. There were some that made the choice to move on their own, but most of the Cherokee tribe did not want to move. The Cherokee Chiefs and warriors wrote a letter to Joseph McMinn expressing not wanting to be removed from their land since the grounds were sacred to them because of their family being buried there. They did not like any of the two options that the US government gave them. One of their biggest concerns that the Cherokee expressed to their letter to the US government is if that they agree to move and accept the 640 acers and become US citizens then they know that in the constitution or the treaty that brings them together gives the US the right to take any private property away from someone to use for public use. The Cherokee felt strongly that the land that would be given to them by the US would never really be viewed as private property. The fact that the US government would show in the treaty that they would use force to remove them from the land they were currently on showed them that it really did not matter if the Cherokee owned the land or not. With help from people who were supposed to be looking out for the best interest of protecting the Native Americans and with representatives who were not authorized to represent the Cherokee Nation helped pass the New Echota Treaty. Chief John Ross visited Washington several times in protest of the treaty it did not work and because of the new treaty the Cherokee Nation was given 2 years to remove themselves off their land in Georgia. After the 2 years was up the majority of the Cherokee Nation still at their reservation in Georgia sat and watch the US military come onto their land and create posts and forts. The removal process had begun. A trail that ran the span of 7 states moved an entire Cherokee Tribe of 16,000 to Tahlequah, Oklahoma. The move that came at a huge price because roughly somewhere between 7 to 10,00 Cherokee's lost their lives during the trail. The US government did not care about their culture, their wellbeing, or their heritage.

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The Trail of Tears in U.S. History

The Cherokee are described as a clean people. Cleaner than the settlers and other Indian tribes in the area. They thought water was a holy gift by the Great Spirit, so they went to it often. Ehle describes the Cherokee being quite matriarchal. Cherokee women had more rights than most European women did. She chose who she wanted to marry, the husband had to build the house, yet the property remained hers. She had the right to choose to kill an unwanted child, if the husband killed a child it would be murder. The birth and upbringing of a well-known Cherokee, The Ridge, is described in the narrative to tell of the ordeals the tribe endured. The biggest struggles before the forced removal for the Cherokee people was attempting to protect their territory and adapting to the cultures of the whites. The Cherokee had made the decision to side with the British during the war, a mistake that would eventually come back to haunt them. The British had promised the Cherokee that if they won, they would help remove all the Americans from their land and forbid them from returning to it. As we know the British lost and with that so did the Cherokee Nation. Even though President Jefferson had signed the treaty of Hopewell. White settlers kept encroaching on Cherokee land. Ridge had gone raiding with a lot of the other warriors in his village. He became well respected. He did not get along with a chief named Doublehead, who was always very vicious and was easily bribed by the white men for land. As Ridge grew, he started to adapt the white ways a lot more successfully than some of his brethren. He got married and started a plantation that grew crops, had cattle, and he actually had a few slaves as well. A lot of missionaries tried to come into the village and help civilize the people through the word of God. One such missionary group was called the Moravians. They were Germans. They had promised to build churches and a boarding house and school for the children. After taking several years to build their buildings, they only promised to teach 4 kids. Outraged, the tribe voted and outed the Moravians and put in place the Presbyterians. Reverend Blackburn was in charge of the church and had promised to teach more children and to allow the option of teaching Christianity, but explained it was not a requirement for the children or the families. The mixed-blood Cherokees were more open to the schooling and to adapting the white ways. Doublehead, a full-blood chief, and also the most ill-mannered was against any civilization, although he did accept money from the whites for land, so he can become rich. Because Doublehead was so amiable to the whites, and they preferred to deal with him, he became the one the President wanted to speak to on behalf of the Cherokee Nation. Ridge and other members of the council did not agree with this. Since it was blood law that if any chief or one Cherokee sold off land without the permission of all of the townspeople and the council the consequence was death. Ridge figured that Doublehead would be best dealt with by assassination since he had broken this blood law. Ridge shot Doublehead in the head. Ridge was then put in a higher place within the Cherokee Council for his actions. There still was a division though between the tribes. Ridge had become the new person that a lot of the whites dealt with. He was rich, dressed like the white man and had a powerful voice with the Cherokee people. On the other hand, was another young up and comer by the name of John Ross. He was a mixed blood with a white father. He could speak English very well and was raised to learn the customs of both sides. He became chief to the Cherokee Nation. He was also very good friends with Ridge. The mixed bloods seemed to follow the word of both Ross and Ridge, but the full-bloods didn't trust the word of Ridge. They were weary of his actions because they felt like he had assimilated too much. Ridge had sent off his son to a school in Connecticut. John was his name and he ended up becoming a lawyer and marrying a white woman. John did move back and helped his father with the Council. Georgia was started to pressure the Cherokee to leave, they wanted the land they occupied. There was a discovery of gold in the area as well that brought in many white prospectors to the land. With the work of Ross and the Ridge family, the Cherokee Nation created their own constitution. Modeled after the US Constitution, it created guidelines for that nation and its sovereignty and borders. Georgia was not happy about this decision and the Cherokee Nation and Georgia went to court in the matter. Once the Supreme Court got a hold of the petition, the Justice of the Supreme Court decided in the favor of the Cherokee. So, for the time being, they were able to hold onto their land. Andrew Jackson soon became president. He was elected and was called the People's President. One of his top issues was the removal of Indians from the East. The Indian Removal Act was the final bill that the Cherokee were dreading. After many years of smaller treaties and deals made with the white men, it was now the President who made the final decision. They were to be given money and supplies to move west of the Mississippi to relocate. Georgia did not follow the Supreme Court decision and beginning a lottery for the Cherokee land. Ridge, Ross, and a few other chiefs travelled to Washington to meet with Jackson to ask him if he would uphold the Supreme Court decision. He declined. He stated that Georgia will do what it wants. So now the decision had to be made. They could either take the money and the supplies and move of their own freewill, or they will be forced by military means from the land and no promises of the conditions. The Cherokee split even further on this issue, which the whites capitalized on. Ridge's family, being highly assimilated and wanted to protect their money and standing, tried to convince all the people of the Cherokee Nation that moving to the west was the best decision. Ridge claimed if they wanted their people to survive, then they needed to go with him and move to the west. Ross, on the other hand, disagreed. Like most full-bloods, the land they occupied was sacred land. It was where they believe the Cherokee people started and have always lived. They believed the Great Spirit had placed the Cherokee there. They would not leave the land without a fight. Jackson, in a final attempt to mitigate the move the Cherokee Nation offered 5 million dollars and the supplies for the people to move. Ridge's family and a few other chiefs thought in an honorable move they would decide for the Nation and sign this treaty. They would make the decision for the survival of their people and agree to move west. Once the rest of the Nation had heard of this sign treaty by only a few of the leaders, they felt utterly betrayed. Ridge's family and less than 2,000 of the over 16,000 Cherokee decided to move west. Now it was down to the clock, and Ross (who had stayed) and the rest of the Cherokee had to find a way to negate this betrayal of a treaty. They got almost every Cherokee to sign a petition that the treaty was not signed in their best interest and they wanted to keep their land. The Court never looked at the petition. It was too late. The troops Jackson had sent arrived, and thousands were ripped from their homes. Because they thought that they would be able to stay on their land, most were not prepared to be moved so suddenly. They were only allowed to carry what they could on their backs. At first, thousands upon thousands were sent to a stokehold. They stayed there for months. Corralled like cattle, they slept on hay or just the near frozen muddy ground. Without proper environmental conditions, sickness and exposure killed several thousand before any travelling even begun. They waited there for over 3 months. When the military finally separated the people into groups almost ?? of the Nation was already gone. Each detachment was then taken west on the trip that was over 800 miles long and would take over 3-4 months. The conditions for travelling were not ideal. Along the way several were lost because supplies ran out. Mothers walked miles and miles with their deceased children in their arms. The dead lay along the pathways. A winter storm would hit and strand thousands to an open area, nowhere to find coverage. Many would die once again from disease and exposure. But along the path many would sing, the Christian songs they were taught. For miles the line of Cherokee sang as they were forced to their new home in Oklahoma, it would be called the Trail of Tears. Now in Oklahoma, Ridge and his family have already set up their plantation in Honey Creek and started anew in this fresh new land. The Ridge family had started setting up a store and schools for the nation. John Ross was one of the last settlers to arrive. He had wanted to set up a meeting with the already established Cherokees and propose they come up with a new Constitution. The blood law that stated no Cherokee could sell any land without permission by the whole of the tribe was kept, and they held that Major Ridge and his family and the few others that signed the initial treaty were found guilty. Assassination parties were assigned, and John was the first to be pulled from his home and he was stabbed over and over, then they stomped on his body. Major Ridge was traveling to visit a sick slave when a volley of shots hit him. He was shot 5 times in the head and several in his body. John Ross continued to rally for the Cherokee Nation. He attempted to get more money for the Nation and helped rebuild the community.

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Choctaw Trail of Tears

On the 28th of May 1830, the president at the time, Andrew Jackson, signed into effect a now controversial law. This law was the Indian Removal Act which allowed the removal of Native Americans from their homes to lands west of the Mississippi River. One tribe who was forcefully removed from their homes was the Choctaw Indian peoples of Mississippi, Texas, Louisiana, and Alabama. When the United States government made them leave their homes, they had to give up almost 11 million acres of land.

It was decided that it would be easiest to move the Choctaws in groups of 3 with the first attempt starting on November 1st 1831(Greenwood, 1). The Choctaw Indians were moved from their homes to the plains of modern day Oklahoma but this trip was so harsh that it was later coined the Trail of Tears. They had two weeks to prepare for the journey to come, so many gathered their crops, gathered their belongings, and sell their property so they would be able to get to the ferry points on the 1st (Greenwood, 4). They were told not to bring their livestock because they would be provided with livestock once they got to the promised, Choctaw Nation in the West (Greenwood, 4).

One plan was if the Indians wanted, they could walk and they would be provided with ten dollars' worth of gold, a brand new rifle, and three months' worth of rifle ammunition and gun powder(Greenwood, 5).. Also, along the way, they would have a guide and would be provided with food (Greenwood, 5). Approximately 300 of them saw this plan as a great idea, but the weather became unbearable (Greenwood, 5). The plan for everyone else was to be moved by wagon from the Memphis area to their destination (Greenwood, 2). This didn't go as planned. A horrific rain storm came in when they planned to leave (Greenwood, 7). Instead, the people in charge of being sure everyone left decided that they should move by steamboat (Greenwood, 8). The problem with that plan became apparent; the U.S. government had cancelled their order to buy more steamboats (Greenwood, 8). After waiting for more, they were able to round up two passenger boats, and three cargo boats (Greenwood, 8). This wasn't nearly enough for the sheer amount of people they needed to move. To make matters worse, before they were able to set sail, one of the larger ships caught fire and wasn't able to leave harbor (Greenwood, 9).

Another major problem was the cold. As a result of waiting until November to start the removal, and the need to wait for the boats, the crew was not able to start the journey until around middle of the month (Greenwood, 11). A blizzard struck, and froze over parts of the river and this made it impassable for the remaining large ship, and it made the journey difficult for the others (Greenwood, 12 & 14). A military post just outside of Mississippi only had about sixty tents to lend to the more than 2000 natives who at this point were forced to walk (Greenwood, 12). Also, many of the Indians were wearing very little clothing and most of the children were wearing none at all (Greenwood, 12). They were lacking provisions, cold, and hungry and they were only 60 miles away from where they started (Greenwood, 11). One option for the natives was to buy food from those who called the area their home, but seeing the rising demand for food, raised the prices by as much as four times as much as standard prices (Greenwood, 19). The freezing weather remained for six days straight and it took eight for more government provided wagons to arrive. Many of the soldiers and the Choctaws froze to death or died of Pneumonia (Greenwood, 14)

The lack of transportation only allowed for the very young children and very sick to ride in the wagons, and everyone else had to walk (Greenwood, 12). Finally, after five months and over two hundred miles, everyone who survived the passage in the 1st removal was at their new home (Greenwood, 22). Only about two-thirds of them made it (Greenwood, 22).

Just before the 2nd removal began, an outbreak of cholera hit Vicksburg, and the citizens of the town trying to get away from the outbreak spread the disease to the Indians waiting to leave (Greenwood, 23). No records were kept of how many of the Choctaw died in the outbreak because when they died, they were put in a pile and their bodies were burned in order to control the spreading of the disease (Greenwood, 24). Many of the same problems that the first envoy faced were faced by those in the second, and approximately 3000 of them made it to their destination (Greenwood, 28)

In the 3rd removal, the crew learned from their mistakes, and didn't have to worry as much about the sheer numbers so the journey went much more smoothly than the first (Greenwood, 29). Only about 1,000 Choctaw Indians left from Vicksburg and almost all of them made it safely to their new home (Greenwood, 29).

Finally, after three years of relocation, numerous deaths, and an immeasurable amount of pain and suffering, the United States got what it wanted and the entire native Choctaw Indian tribe was out of its original home and into a foreign land. Today, almost 85,000 Choctaw Indians live in Oklahoma.

Works Cited

Greenwood, Len. (March, 1995) Trail of Tears from Mississippi Walked by Our Ancestors. Chahta Anumpa Aiikhvna School of Choctaw Language. Retrieved from www.choctawschool.com/home-side-menu/history/trail-of-tears-from-mississippi-walked-by-our-ancestors.aspx.

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Boston Massacre: Another American Revolution

On the fifth of March, 1770, a patriot mob began to harass a British sentry outside the Custom House on King Street in Boston, Massachusetts. As the harassment escalated, Captain Thomas Preston was called for backup. During the confrontation, among the shouts and yelling, there were cries for the squad to “fire!”. The squad responded to this command and ended up killing several colonists. A black sailor names Crispus Attucks, ropemaker Samuel Gray, mariner James Caldwell were instantly killed. Samuel Maverick and Patrick Carr were mortally wounded and would die later. The “Massacre”, as it was named later, led to a concerted effort by resistance leaders to inspire the “ire of citizenry”. Speeches, demonstrations, and propagandistic images fueled the growing flames of discontent towards the monarchy. In the end, this “massacre” and the anger resulting from it were integral in the march towards the eventual Revolutionary war.

Tensions in Boston, 1770, were high. During this time, over two thousand British soldiers were occupying the city of Boston, which was populated by by over sixteen thousand colonists. The soldiers were present in order to enforce Britain’s laws, which the colonists were rebelling against. They found the taxes repressive and rallied over the slogan “no taxation without representation”. Skirmishes, a fight between small bodies of troops, especially advanced or outlying detachments of opposing armies, between British and soldiers became very common. They also became popular between patriots, who were loyal to the colonies, and loyalists, who were loyal to Britain. In order to protest these taxes, patriots vandalized stores that sold British goods and intimidated their customers.

On February 22, a group of protesters of patriots attacked a store owned by loyalists. A customs officer, Ebenezer Richardson, made an attempt to break up the riot. He fired out his window and onto the crowd below. His gunfire struck and killed Christopher Seider, an eleven year-old boy, who was in the crowd. This attack further enrage patriots and protesters, and helped escalate their protests. Shortly after this event, another fight broke out between local workers and British soldiers. No serious injuries resulted from it, but it helped set up the violence that was yet to come.

On the fifth of March, 1770, Private Hugh White was guarding the Custom House on King Street. The Custom House was containing the King’s money. Shortly after White was stationed at his post, a group of colonists joined him, and threatened violence. The violence was much more aggravated than previous encounters, due to recent events leading up to the riot. After a short amount of violent barating from the colonists, White fought back and struck one of the colonists with his bayonet. In response to this, protesters threw snowballs, ice, and stones at him. Bells rung through the street, and sent a rush of male colonists to the streets. The bells were usually a warning for fire, so the men naturally responded to it.

As the assault on White continued, he fell and was forced to call for backup. In response to White’s panic, Captain Thomas Preston arrived at the scene with several British soldiers. The Captain feared mass riots and was afraid that they would lose the King’s money, which was being stored in the Custom House. Both the colonists and the soldiers feared that bloodshed was inevitable.

During the confrontation, colonists were reported to have dared the soldiers to fire, and other to have begged them to hold their fire. Captain Thomas Preston later revealed that he was told the colonists had a plan to “carry White off his post and murder him”. The violence soon escalated, and the protesters attacked the soldiers with stick and clubs. As this ensued, someone supposedly yelled “fire!”. The reports were mixed on which side ordered the command, or if the shot was intentional or not. After the first shot, other soldiers opened fire on the crowd. The gunfire struck and killed five colonists were killed, and six were wounded. The dead colonists included; Crispus Attucks, Patrick Carr, Samuel Gray, Samuel Maverick, and James Caldwell. Crispus Attucks was one the first to die, and was of African and Native American descent. These deaths are commonly believed as the first deaths of the American Revolution.

From the colonist’s point of view, the violence seemed to be caused by the soldiers (Appendix), but Captain Thomas Preston’s account tells a different story. He claims that there was never any intention to ensue violence of any form. He also makes the claim that he never order his men to “fire”. The Captain claims that the colonists threatened and instigated the soldiers with phrases like; “lobster scoundrels” or “come on, you rascals”. He then stated that he attempted to persuade the men to retire peacefully, but clearly failed. Captain Preston was then asked by his men is the guns were loaded, he replied yes, and he was also asked if they should fire, to which he replied no. He claimed to have witnessed a soldier to receive a serious blow from one of the protesters, which caused the soldier to veer a bit to the side and fire into the crowd. The Captain questioned this, but was then, too, hit with a club.

Captain Thomas Preston claimed that the soldiers’ lives were in imminent danger and pressured into firing by the protesting crowd of colonists. The colonists yelled phrases like; “damn your bloods- why don’t you fire?”. Shortly after this confusion, three or four soldiers fired into the crowd. He claimed to have yelled “hold your fire” and “stop firing”, but it was too late. Following this riot, four to five thousand people gathered on the street next to the “massacre”. They claimed to have wanted the deaths of the Captain and his men. After hearing this, the soldiers dispersed out of fear.

On October 24, 1770, about seven months after the “massacre”, the trial of the soldiers accused of murdering the colonists was taken place. One of the people questioned was Samuel Hemmingway, who decided to testify against the British soldiers, specifically Matthew Kilroy. Kilroy shot and killed Samuel Gray, the owner of a ropemaking shop. In Hemingway's testimony to the crown, he stated that one evening, about a week before the “massacre”, he overheard Killroy say that “he would never miss an opportunity to fire on the inhabitants” and that he had wanted to ever since he landed”.

A contrasting testimony to this is that of Dr John Jeffries for the Defense. Dr Jeffries was Patrick Carr’s surgeon, and operated on him after he was shot, and died four days later. Jeffries testifies that Patrick was new to this kind of violence, since he was originally from Ireland. He testifies that during his last conversation with Carr, he forgave the man who shot him, and understood that the man was just defending himself against the protesters. For this reason, Carr was denounced by Samuel Adams and other patriots, who were angry that they could not use him to stir up more anti-british sentiments.

In the depositions of John Wilme and Jeffrey Richards, they claimed that the soldiers were making threatening claims and actions against the colonists. Wilme claimed that about ten days before the “massacre”, Christopher Rumbly of the 14th regiment talk very much against Boston. Wilme claimed that he heard Rumbly say that “blood will run in the streets of Boston”. Jeffrey Richardson made a somewhat similar statement, and he claimed that on the Friday before the violent protest, eight to ten armed soldiers came to Mr. John Gray’s ropemaking shop. They challenged the soldiers to fight them, and tried to instigate violence.

The deposition of Ebenezer Bridgham and argument of Josiah Quincy for the defense, found the colonists to be at fault. Bridgham testified that the soldiers were defending themselves against the colonists, as they were striking their guns with sticks. He claimed the patriot group were calling them cowards for bringing arms against unarmed men, and daring them to fire as they hit them. Josiah Quincy made a similar argument for the defense, claiming that the words the colonists used to berate the British sentry were so demeaning and disrespectful helped to provoke the soldiers into such violence. He also claimed that the soldiers tried to procure peace by saying things such as “if they molest me upon my post, I will fire!” and “stand off! I am upon my station!”. Quincy suggest that these words served as a warning to colonists, and the soldiers were only trying to do their jobs.

The verdict was announced nine months after the “massacre”, the fifth of December, 1770. The jury that decided the verdict did not contain a single Boston citizen. Matthew Kilroy and Hugh Montgomery were found guilty of manslaughter while the other six soldiers, James Hartigan, William McCauley, Hugh White, William Warren, and John Carroll, were acquitted. Kilroy and Montgomery were able to avoid the death penalty through “benefit of the clergy”, which was used a loophole for first-time offenders. It was an early English law which held that non-religious courts did not have any legal power over clergymen. After the soldiers had “prayed the clergy”, each one was branded on the thumb with and “M”, for manslaughter. This would be visible for any future oaths or handshakes, marking them as killer for the rest of their lives. Yet for many colonists, the branding was still not enough to bring justice to the victims of the “massacre” and the town of Boston.

The violence of the riot and the treatment of the soldiers both increased the feelings of turmoil in Boston, and the colonies in general. The new laws and taxes enforced by Parliament onto the colonies already brought anger to the colonies, but the violence by the British soldiers helped increase this hatred towards the crown. The anger and feelings of injustice fueled by the “Boston Massacre”and the trial that followed helped add fuel to the growing fire that was the American Revolution.

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The Boston Massacre Event

Contents

The Boston Massacre
Online Soures

The Boston Massacre

The Boston Massacre took place in 1770 outside the Boston Customs House. More than one hundred Bostonians confronted a band of nine British soldiers near a sentry box outside the Boston Customs House (Gale, 1999). Tensions between the Bostonians and the British soldiers rose, and the British ended up fatally wounding five civilians. The five civilians were, Crispus Attucks, a former slave turned sailor; James Caldwell, another sailor; Patrick Carr, an immigrant Irishman who made leather trousers; Samuel Gray, a rope maker; and Samuel Maverick, the brother-in-law of mob leader Ebenezer Mackintosh (Gale, 1999). Additionally six other innocent bostonians were wounded. The Boston Massacre was a very important event because it had a major impact on the relations between the American and British colonists.

The seven years war left the British in financial distress which lead to taxing the colonies. The acts caused a fierce debate over whether the British Parliament had the right to tax American colonies only for raising revenue. Colonists protested that the British cannot tax as they didn't have representation in the government. The Stamp Act taxed stamps, cards, legal documents, and newspapers. Many protests took place in opposition to the stamp act. Another Act was the Townshend Act where the British put a tax on colonial imports and stationed troops at major colonial ports. To enforce the Acts, the British sent naval and military forces to Boston, which lead to the Boston Massacre. Later in 1765, delegates from American colonies came together in New York City and made petitions to British Parliament to repeal the Acts. It provided the British a taste of what would happen soon (Khan Academy).

As a result of the Boston Massacre, the colonial leaders used the deaths as propaganda. A few weeks after the massacre, Paul Revere created an engraving known as the Bloody Massacre.

Online Soures

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/road-to-revolution/the-american-revolution/a/uproar-over-the-stamp-act
https://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/boston-massacre Credible Sources (Other)
https://go.galegroup.com.eznvcc.vccs.edu:2048/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=Reference&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=MultiTab&searchType=BasicSearchForm?¤tPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CEJ1667500078&docType=Topic+overview&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=&prodId=UHIC&contentSet=GALE%7CEJ1667500078&searchId=R1&userGroupName=viva2_nvcc&inPS=true

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Causes of the Spanish American War

How can yellow journalism influence public opinion? To help understand yellow journalism and its origin, reference the following web site: https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/yellow-journalism

What is yellow journalism?

The Spanish American War was a 4 month conflict fought between Spain and the United States in 1898. The United States declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898. What caused the Spanish American War? How does yellow journalism fit in?

Cause 1: Reconcentration Camps

Cuba was a Spanish colony that rebelled in 1868. The rebellion failed after 10 years. In 1895 Cuba launched a second revolt. Spain sent a new governor, General Valeriano Weyler, to rule Cuba and end the revolt. In 1896, General Weyler implemented the first wave of the Spanish "Reconcentration Policy" that sent thousands of Cubans into detention camps. The objective was to separate the rebelling Cubans from the noncombatant population. Under Weyler's policy, the rural population had eight days to move into designated camps located in fortified towns; any person who failed to obey was shot. The housing in these areas was typically abandoned, decaying, roofless, and virtually uninhabitable. Food was scarce and famine and disease quickly swept through the camps. By 1898, one third of Cuba's population had been forcibly sent into the concentration camps. Over 400,000 Cubans died as a result of the Spanish Reconcentration Policy.

Colon Cemetery, Havana, Cuba, 1898 225,000 Cuban civilians died in 18 months 1896-97

What was the relationship between Cuba and Spain? Who was General Valeriano Weyler? What did General Valeriano Weyler do those who opposed Spanish rule? How do you think Americans felt about the actions in Cuba?

Cause 2: Cuba's Close

Proximity to the US How far is Cuba from the United States? What types of activities did Americans engage in with Cuba, since it was so close? Knowing how close the US and Cuba are, how do you think the rebellion in Cuba made the Americans feel?

Cause 3: The Explosion of the USS Maine

February 16 1898: Battleship U.S.S. Maine Explodes. At 9:40pm on February 15, 1898, the battleship U.S.S. Maine exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 268 men and shocking the American populace. The Maine had been in Havana since January 25, 1898, on an official observation visit. In the American press, headlines proclaimed "Spanish Treachery!" and "Destruction of the War Ship Maine Was the Work of an Enemy!" William Randolph Hearst and his New York Journal offered a $50,000 award for the "detection of the Perpetrator of the Maine Outrage." Many Americans assumed the Spanish were responsible for the Maine's destruction. On March 28, 1898, the United States Naval Court of Inquiry found that the Maine was destroyed by a submerged mine. Although blame was never formally placed on the Spanish, implication was clear. Recent research suggests that the explosion may have been an accident, involving a spontaneous combustion fire in the coal bunker. Some conspiracy theorists have even suggested that sensational journalist William Randolph Hearst may have set the explosion in order to precipitate a war. While historians will never know exactly what happened the night the Maine went down, it is clear that the incident was a significant force that propelled the United States into the Spanish-American War.

What ship is shown in the picture above? To what country did this ship belong? How do think the destruction of this ship affected Americans?

Yellow Journalism Examples

USS MAINE BLOWN UP: MANY YOUNG SAILORS DROWN DUE TO SPANISH TREACHERY read the front page headline from the New York Evening World on February 17, 1898.1 While on the day after, the Pittsburgh Gazette printed a much more cautious headline, MAINE EXPLODES: PRESENTLY EXPLOSION UNDER INVESTIGATION. Which headline is yellow journalism? Explain. Why do you think people believe yellow journalism? You furnish the pictures, I'll furnish the war William Randolph Hearst Explain this quote

TASK: As a group, create a newspaper in the style of yellow journalism. You need to use the template included. You are to locate photographs and write articles designed to sway people against the Spanish, which would lead to the onset of the Spanish American War. Consider the writing style and word choice in your writing to sway Americans against the Spanish and help start a war.

Create a title for your newspaper Insert map of Cuba with caption

Insert yellow journalism article on Cuba-US relations here Insert photo here of reconcentration camps with caption

Insert yellow journalism article on reconcentration camps here

Insert photo here of the destruction of the USS Maine with caption Insert yellow journalism article on the destruction of the USS Maine

Insert political cartoon about yellow journalism and the Spanish American war here

Insert explanation of political cartoon about yellow journalism and the Spanish American war here

Closure: Does yellow journalism influence public opinion today? Explain.

Yellow journalism in modern press: https://manshipmassmedia.wordpress.com/2014/11/14/modern-day-yellow-journalism/

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Imperialism in the Spanish-American War

Since the United States have become their own country, it has gone through many changes in status. Before becoming a country, the United States was merely a series of territories belonging to multiple countries. When we began to advance in status, we learned that one key to success was a strategy called imperialism. Imperialism happens when a country uses its military and relationships with other countries to gain control of other territories. This system makes the power of the country rely on the territory that the country has obtained. In the late nineteenth century, the ways of imperialism were very popular in America because they wanted to expand their territory in order to become more powerful.

In the late nineteenth century, Spain didn't have power over very much land. The only territories they had were Puerto Rico, Cuba, some islands in the Pacific, and a couple of small territories in Africa. They were wanting more territory, like the United States, and they were set on defending the territories they were already in rule over. They may have been so possessive because only years before, the Spanish territory was in power of much more land than it was at the time before the Spanish-American War.

The Spanish-American War was really sparked with the fight for the independence of Cuba. When they decided that they wanted independence, the Spanish decided that they needed to fight back because they did not want to lose one of the few territories that they still had ownership over. Cuba was very important to the Spanish Empire; it was so important that Spain gave the territory of Florida to Britain in order to keep control of Havana, Cuba's capital. From this point on, a battle of territory ensued. The practice of imperialism in these two countries, or empires, if you will, has now begun a war.

Before the war, the United States did not approve of the way the Spanish Empire was governing Cuba. The rule of Cuba became more absolutist, despite its state of being a colony. Even the inhabitants of Cuba who opposed independence in the beginning now began to seek reform, whether that be through independence or through being added to the United States.

Major General Máximo Gí?mez Baez was a leader of the Cuban revolution against Spain. The Cubans were revolting against their Spanish rule because the people of Cuba had suffered centuries of oppression, and by the early 1800s, they were forced to pay high taxes to their Spanish rulers. His troops had already been fighting Spain in the Ten Years' War from October of 1868 to 1878, which was for their independence. The effort Cuba's separation had failed, ending in a peace in which Spain promised Cuba some limited self-government. This deal was never fulfilled on Spain's part.

Máximo Gí?mez Baez went to the United States to meet with Jos© Martí, a Cuban revolutionary and activist who was exiled because of his passionate activism. These two ended up having very different ideas of how to get Cuba into its own, independent state. Connections like these are what gave Cuba American support in their fight for freedom. At this point, the United States were aware that they were not going to be able to buy Cuba from Spain and that Cuba was going to want to be a self-reliant country. The way that the United States was serving Cuba became more of a sympathetic relationship than a business deal. The U.S. remembered what it was like for themselves being under the rule of other empires and just wanting to provide for and rule themselves. In addition to this, Cubans were also being put into concentration camps by leaders of their government, and this was completely unacceptable.

Although all of these terrible things were happening to Cubans, the United States remained neutral between the Spaniards and the Cubans. The U.S. president at the time, William McKinley, just tried to influence Spain to end the violence in favor of Cuba. The Spaniards believed that they had the divine right, or right given by God, to any territory they could get possession of.

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The Vel D’Hiv Incident

The Vel d'Hiv incident was a dark time in history involving the arrest and round up of foreign Jews in Paris during the German occupation of France.

In May and June of 1942, head of the SS Siecherheitsdienst Reinhard Heyrich, forced labor employment organizer Fritz Sauckel and Jewish policy official Adolf Eichmann visited Paris. Later in June into July, the French administration was replaced by the collaborationist Vichy regime instituted by the Germans. This would serve to make their plans to deport the Jews easier as they could exploit France's policy: all Jews had to wear gold stars of David to make clear that they were Jews.

On July 16th, 1942, around 4,500 French policemen began to arrest all Jewish in Paris en masse as ordered by the German authorities. 13,000 Jews, around 4,000 of which were children, were rounded up and taken to the Velodrome d'Hiver in the span of one week. Inside the stadium, it was horribly crowded and the smell was noted to be horrible, the facility not built to hold so many people. There was very little water and food, as well as poor sanitation that only exacerbated the confusion and panic among the Jews. In the following week, the Jews were moved once more to the Pilthiviers concentration camp in Loiret and the Beaune-la-Rolande concentration camp in Drancy. When they arrived there in the end of July and until the beginning of August, they were prepared to be transported to Auschwitz. Children as young as babies and as old as early adolescents were separated from their parents and were left behind until the end of the month, where they would be transported to their tragic deaths with complete strangers in September.

Two months after the Vel d'Hiv, approximately 1,000 Jews were deported to Auschwitz every two to three days and by the end of September, 38,000 had been deported to their ends. By 1945, only 780 of those 38,000 had survived.

The general public had mixed feelings about the incident, from actively working with the Germans (civil administration and police force) to arrest Jews to indifference and even empathy towards those being persecuted. Though they were a minority, there were those who tried to help the Jews by purposefully ignoring the escapees instead of turning them over and those who risked their own lives by hiding them from the authorities. Because the public had knowledge of women and children also being included in the round-up, groups like the church and press protested the authorities.

Two notable survivors from the incident are Sarah Lichtsztejn-Montard and Cecile Widerman-Kaufer. Lichtsztejn was 14 at the time but managed to escape with guidance from her mother, who intentionally lied to keep her daughter safe. Lichtsztejn recalled that on that Thursday morning, many people had still been asleep (it was 6 AM) but were woken up by police banging on their doors and forcing them out of their homes, giving them no information as to why or where they were being taken. They barely had time to collect even the minimum amount of belongings, much less their senses before they were carted off to the stadium. When Lichtsztejn arrived at the stadium, she had met up with some of her own classmates, who seemed unperturbed by the situation.

Widerman was 12 at the time and managed to survive because her mother had sent a note to her grandparents to let them know what was happening, who were able to contact a French Catholic woman who was already hiding five other Jewish children in her home. She recorded her entire experience everyday until the end of the war in her diary, later publishing it into the book Goodbye for Always: The Triumph of the Innocents. At first, she didn't want to share her experience, believing the pain she felt was only hers to bear, but later changed her mind, finding importance in sharing her story so people would not only understand her pain, but learn from it as well.

While there are many like Widerman who believe and insist on learning from history, there are those who don't. French head of the National Front Marine Le Pen believes that France shouldn't be held accountable for the atrocities at all, remarking that the incident was the fault of the Germans and completely disregarding that the Vichy regime collaborated with the Germans on their own will. She also continues with a supporting statement, saying that she stands by her opinion because she believes that France has taught the younger generations to only criticize and feel shame for being French because of Vel d'Hiv. By deflecting responsibility, it s supposed to make youth proud of being French again. This is a stark difference in opinions compared to former French president Jacques Chirac and then leader, Franí§ois Hollande, who have both apologized for France's participation. Current leader Emmanuel Macron referred to her comments as a serious mistake and French Jewish organizations have considered them insults to France.

Le Pen's belief is shared by others, but fortunately, it's not a opinion shared by the majority of the population. Despite this very real event with very real survivors, some will still try to play down the atrocities or just flat-out deny them. Whether this is because they cannot stand the harsh reality of the world or because they have a prejudice within themselves that warps their views, it is important that we look back on events such as these and learn from them. Erasing history or oversimplifying it can lead to inaccurate teachings of it to our future generations, preventing them from making informed conclusions about events and making it difficult for them to take away important lessons that they can apply in their own life. As people who live on this Earth, it is a hope that we are able to always look to history with a clear mind and clear eyes so we can make fair judgements that aren't clouded by bias brought on by misinformation.

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Anorexia Nervosa Affecting American Females

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder portrayed by extreme weight loss. People with anorexia tend to restrict their diet to a certain calorie intake each day that can result in life-threatening risks. Research shows that Anorexia nervosa has the highest death rate of any psychiatric diagnosis. The mortality rate is conclusively twelve times higher than the death rate of all causes of death for females within 15-24 years old. Severe anorexia cases are known to irritate professionals due to the complexity of approaches used. Since people with anorexia restrict their diet, their body is being denied of essential nutrients and can be the cause of major health consequences. People often mistake mistake anorexia nervosa with other types of eating disorders. Bulimia is mostly mistaken for anorexia due to the similarity of food restrictions, excessive exercise and a strong desire to not gain weight. The difference is that bulimia is characterized by binging and purging behavior to prevent weight gain. Purging behavior incorporates vomiting, diuretic or laxative abuse. Pica is another eating disorder mistaken for anorexia nervosa, this is because a patient eats food that have no nutritional value such as cotton. You might have seen some examples on the TV show My Strange Addiction, where people eat non-food items. Purging disorder is when a person purges without bingeing. This of course can be a major risk to the health such as ulcers, chronic gastric reflux, irregular heart rhythm, etc. There is no single cause associated with anorexia nervosa. Anorexia can be a coping mechanism for some patients who are going through traumas or life stressing matters. Such ones may be facing divorce or family separation, the stress of academic pressures, transitions, developmental challenges or any change in their life. Anorexia is also found in patients whose families are well functioning. The encounter of puberty and adolescence are also common causes of anorexia. Research claims that patients of anorexia may come from families with autistic spectrum traits, perfectionist, obsessive, and competitive traits. The factors of anorexia are divided to predisposing, precipitating, and perpetuating factors that trigger and maintain an eating disorder. A patient might begin with harmless dieting which can become extreme with time. Family influence is also another key, a patient might be called names by family as a joke which could take a negative turn on a person, especially when they are already dealing with body insecurities. Parents are not the blame for the condition of an anorexic child because it is an eating disorder caused by improper brain functioning. Low levels of serotonin (one of the brain chemicals involved in depression) can be a cause of anorexia. 33% -50% of anorexic patients have mood disorders, such as depression. The diagnosis of anorexia has become common over the years, it affects people of different racial groups, ethnic, sexes, age, and socioeconomic status. The effects of this disorder may worsen as a patient becomes more obsessed with their weight. The patient may begin to fail academically, lose faith in religion, face career disruption, and isolate themselves from friends and family. This happens because the patient has prioritized their time to pay attention to their weight and nothing more. Since their body is restricted from essential nutrients, they are prone to complications to many bodily functions. The heart is the most important muscle in the body, because it pumps blood throughout the body, supplying it with oxygen and essential nutrient, while discarding waste such as carbon dioxide. With intense weight loss, the heart muscle can weaken and give out, resulting in death. The heart can also experience irregular heartbeat, low blood pressure, fatal heart decompensation, and fainting. The stomach might shrink due to loss of muscle in the gastrointestinal track, which can cause constipation and minimum movement of food through the tracks. The patient might feel full or really bloated after consumption of a small meal, the liver might become inflamed due to fatty deposits. Urine might become highly concentrated and urine production might increase when the kidneys fail. An anorexic woman may experience absence of menstrual cycle because of iron deficiency, they are at a very high risks for being diagnosed with osteoporosis. Red blood cells that carry the oxygen might become low, as well as, white blood cell. As a result of anorexia, both male and female may experience widespread endocrine disorder. It involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis which is noticeable in women as amenorrhea and in men loss of sexual interest and potency. Male and females may experience changes in the peripheral metabolism of thyroid hormone and abnormalities of insulin secretion, as well as concentration of growth hormone and increased cortisol. If patient becomes anorexia before puberty, then the sequence of puberty might be delayed or even arrested. 0.9% of American females are affected by anorexia nervosa in their life span. Women are the target group for this eating disorder. This is because in general, women with eating disorders try their absolute best to please others and are extremely sensitive to critics. They see themselves as perfectionist in what they do and don't easily accept to change. Adolescences, especially females, are vulnerable and feeble during this time. Females begin to build bone density and are more sensitive to acceptance and self esteem, and social issues. Anorexia is also a growing disease for males but this research paper has narrowed its focus on females. So many eating disorder myths are often mistaken for diets, especially anorexia nervosa, because it is characterized by restricting calories like weight-loss diet. Someone on a diet decides to stick to a meal plan because they are aware of the guilt that will haunt them if they fail to stick to the meal plan, but a person with anorexia might become fearful in the presence of food because the imbalance of the brain chemicals. Rather than thinking of the positive and negative consequence for eating certain meals, persons with anorexia might have the feeling of distaste. A person who is on a healthy diet might see a scale as a way to tract their progress instead of personifying an inanimate object as a best friend or archenemy. Persons with anorexia nervosa share common personality traits among themselves. They tend to be competitive and are quite impelled to succeed because they see fast results in weight loss. They do not support a stable person on a healthy diet, they tend to set unrealistic goals and try every way to accomplish them. Such goals may include wanting to see the appearance of ribs or have no amount of fat or loose skin. They do not do these things based on personal expectations but on what others will think. This is different from other people who tend to judge themselves based on internal standards. When an anorexic person fails to meet a certain goal they set, they have a strong urge of dissatisfaction with themselves. This might cause a patient to punish themselves because when they now look at the mirror, they don't just see a fat person, they also see a failure. Due to mental inflexibility, patients may not know that their behaviors are extreme, and there are other ways to be satisfied and happy aside from weight loss. Eating disorders are sometimes biologically inherited and tend to run in families. Research studies have shown that inherited genetic factors contribute 56% of the risk for an individual to develop the disorder. This is why it is important for health care providers to know any family history of a disease, so it can be prevented from an earlier stage. A person with a sister, or mother with anorexia nervosa is twelve times more likely to develop anorexia than other individuals without a history of anorexia. Since women are the target group for eating disorders, it makes sense why the risk would be higher. Studies of twins have shown that identical twins are more likely to have an eating disorder than fraternal twins or other siblings. Research suggests altered levels of dopamine are prevalent in the brains of women who develop anorexia nervosa. This can cause hyperactivity, repetition of behaviors (food restrictions) and anhedonia. This explains why they keep on restricting their diets but yet, still feel minimum pleasure from it. People often refuse to accept a diagnoses when dealing with mental health. To diagnose a patient with anorexia nervosa, the doctor will need to analyze cause of weight loss and if the doctor suspects that a person might have anorexia, a referral is made to a mental health professional. The mental health professional will then asses the patient against a list of criteria outlined in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Version 5 (DSM-5). DSM-5 is a manual in which mental health professionals diagnose mental health disorders. During a physical examination, the doctor may check on a person's body mass index (BMI). While laboratory test may include blood and urine test. In order to minimize the risk of becoming anorexic, Individuals may need to minimize pressures that we face both academically and socially, we also need to minimize family issues and change intense cultural attitudes. Individuals should focus on having healthy role models and having realistic attitudes towards weight. Parents, peers, siblings, teachers, and health care professionals should be pay attention to behavior and attitude change in a person. Some warning signs of anorexia nervosa we need to pay attention may include, but are not limited to, dramatic weight loss, maintaining excessive exercise regimen, feeling cold all the time, female loses menstrual period etc. In order to treat anorexia nervosa, a patient should be willing to try monitoring and nutritional rehabilitation to restore normal weight. Psychotherapy is another treatment which is focused on the patient's irrational preoccupations with weight and shape. Interventions involves monitoring a patient's weight gain and prescribing competent diets and admitting patients who fail to regain a certain weight. The National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders (ANAD) is a non-profit organization spreading awareness for anorexia. Other non-profit organizations that specialize in spreading awareness for anorexia and other eating disorders nationally includes national eating disorders association, eating disorder hope, eating disorder foundation etc. Local non-profit organizations that advocates for eating disorders such as anorexia are Court Appointed Special Advocate (CASA), Eating Disorder Network of Maryland (EDN), Columbia Maryland Support Group etc.

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Physical Effects of Anorexia Nervosa

Eating disorders are plaguing the world today. People are obsessing over body image so immensely that many are turning to excessive eating disorders in an attempt to solve their emotional unbalance. Anorexia Nervosa is one of these fatal illnesses. This disorder can be distinguished by immoderate exercise and fear of gaining weight, which most often leads to extreme weight loss. The physical effects of Anorexia Nervosa can be detrimental to a person's health and cause many problems in bodily functions presently and in the future. Osteopenia is one of the negative outcomes Anorexia Nervosa can have on an individual's health. This occurs when the body is malnourished and cannot produce bone as quickly, therefore, causing a deficiency in bone mass. Bones store the majority of calcium intake, therefore, bone strength is decreased when the body is not receiving enough of this nutrient. If a person's diet is calcium deficient, bones will be robbed of calcium to maintain normal blood levels for vital functions, said Meghan Slattery, Eating Disorders Catalog (2018). This can lead to a decline in mineralization and bone loss. Bone loss can also be largely affected by hormones, especially estrogen. The body responds to a starved state by conserving resources when possible, e.g. limiting reproduction by minimizing production of estrogen and of certain hormones that regulate ovarian production of estrogen (2018). This causes minimal or sporadic menstrual cycles and bone loss. Bone formation is another part of bone density that is largely stimulated by another nutritionally regulated hormone, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) (2018). When the body is being repressed from the necessary nutrients it needs, bone density is reduced dramatically. In an article from Oxford Academic, Pouneh K Fazeli and Anne Klibanski state that, alterations in the rate of bone formation during adolescence may have lifelong impact with respect to bone structure and fragility (2018). Not giving the body the nourishment it needs now, will make bones more delicate and open to possibilities of being fractured in the future. The heart needs nutrients to continue pumping blood through the body. Depriving the body of these nutrients forces the body to slow down to conserve energy because the heart specifically becomes smaller and weaker, making it more difficult to circulate blood at a healthy rate (Northwestern Medicine, 2018). One result of this is bradycardia, an exceedingly low heart rate caused by weak heart muscles unable to pump blood through the rest of the body. Pumping in the heart also becomes difficult when the muscles in the heart start to decay, becoming thin and fatigued. This can lead to low blood pressure, which the body is unable to counteract by constrict[ing] blood levels to raise blood pressure (2018). Fainting and decompensation in the heart are also results of Anorexia Nervosa (University of Rochester Medical Center, 2018). Northwestern Medicine concluded that heart damage is the most common reason for hospitalization in people with this form of disordered eating (2018). The effects Anorexia Nervosa has on the heart can be virulent and life threatening. Gastroparesis is an effect Anorexia Nervosa can have on the stomach. This occurs when the muscles in the stomach shrink down and are weakened. Because of this, they are no longer able to receive the signals the nerves send to process food. When overcoming this eating disorder, the stomach will sometimes experience detainment when attempting to empty the stomach. If extended over a long period of time, the food will then become fermented in the stomach causing bacterial problems. Food can also harden in the stomach, forming solid lumps known as bezoars, which themselves can cause stomach pain and vomiting Beth Morrisey, Eating Disorder Expert, states (2018). Bezoars, depending on the size and placement in the stomach, can easily be removed by being dissolved chemically. Others, however, need endoscopic removal or surgery (Raghav Bansal, Merck Manual, 2018). The stomach can also obtain ulcers. This happens when there is no food to protect the stomach walls from stomach acids, and a hard, swollen distended stomach can result from both bacterial infections and ulcers (Beth Morrisey, Eating Disorder Expert, 2018). Ulcers cause severe stomach discomfort that is not fatal, but quite painful. Another effect of Anorexia Nervosa is stomach contraction. This causes the stomach to feel fuller faster and to not accommodate normal amounts of food until they are gently stretched' with slightly larger snacks and meals (2018). This can be overcome, but only after a long period of time. Lastly, kidneys are affected by Anorexia Nervosa. Kidneys are in charge of a vital function: to purify and clear out toxins in the body. In order to do this process, water and electrolytes are necessary. When a person is dealing with Anorexia Nervosa, they are dehydrating, and, therefore, injuring their kidneys, making them shut down and unable to perform correctly. Without water and electrolytes, serious toxemia will occur when the toxins enter the bloodstream. Ben Mahoney, Center for Discovery, states that, Dark urine and decreased urinary output are two warning signs of kidney failure (2017). Anorexia Nervosa can impact the health of kidneys and how well they function in the body.

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Eating Disorder Anorexia Nervosa

Contents

Glossary:
Eating Disorder: Anorexia Nervosa
Conceptual Framework Pertaining Anorexia Nervosa
Community Wellness in Anorexia Nervosa
Dialectic Nature of Social Work Practice in Anorexia Nervosa: Conflicts & Dilemmas
Anorexia Nervosa: Psychiatric & Allopathic Medicine
Alternative Understandings & Approaches to Anorexia Nervosa
References

Glossary:

Acupuncture - an ancient Chinese therapy using needles and herbs to revivify the body's energy flow.

Aromatherapy - the use of essential oils to relieve stress and relax.

Anorexia Nervosa - a medical condition and or mental health condition that causes lack or loss of appetite for food.

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory - explains how the basic qualities of a child and his or her environment interactions influence how he will grow and develop.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - a type of psychotherapy which helps change negative patterns and thoughts by altering them.

DSM-5 - Manual of Mental Disorders.

Eating disorder - Abnormal or disturbed eating habits.

Homeopathy - the stimulation of the body's natural defences (antibodies) to the illness, by introducing the problem substance into the body.

Hypnosis - sleep like state to alter state of consciousness to recover suppressed memories or to modify behaviors by suggestion.

Meditation - the encouragement of mental relaxation to create inner calmness.

Naturopathy - herbal treatment to help the body heal itself.

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors - prescribed antidepressants in order to improve mood.

Transtheoretical Model (TTM) - the model focusing on decision making and intentional change.

Eating Disorder: Anorexia Nervosa

Eating disorders are serious illnesses that can affect people of all ages, sex, gender, race, ethnicity and socioeconomic group this disorder specifically targets the person's mental and physical health but with the right treatment and support this illness is treatable. According to the National Eating Disorder Association (2018) Anorexia Nervosa (AN) is an eating disorder that is characterized by weight loss, lack of appropriate weight gain in growing children; difficult maintaining an appropriate body weight for height, age, and stature; and in many individuals distorted body image. In order to be diagnosed with Anorexia Nervosa (307.1) according to the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p.171) a person must display (a) restriction of energy intake relative to requirements leading to a significantly low body weight in the context of age, sex, development trajectory, and physical health. Significantly low weight is defined as a weight that is less than minimally normal or, for children and adolescents, less than that minimal expected, (b) intense fear of gaining weight or of becoming fat, or persistent behavior that interferes with weight gain, even though at a significantly low weight, (c) disturbance in the way in which one's body weight or shape is experienced, undue influence of body weight or shape on self-evaluation, or persistent lack of recognition of the seriousness of the current low body weight. There are two subtypes of AN one is Restricting Type (F50.01): During the last 3 months, the individual has not engaged in recurrent episodes of binge eating or purging behavior (i.e., self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas). This subtype describes presentations on which weight loss is accomplished primarily through dieting, fasting, and/or excessive exercise. The other subtype is Binge-eating/Purging Type (F50.2): During the 3 months, the individual has engaged in recurrent episodes of binge-eating or purging behavior (i.e., self-induced vomiting, or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas). Historians and psychologists (Richard Morton, 1689) have found evidence of people displaying symptoms of anorexia for hundreds and thousands of years, and even though this disorder often starts during adolescence, more and more children and older adults are being diagnosed with anorexia. Parents and friends, social workers, and other health professionals are unable to tell if a person is struggling with anorexia by just looking at them. A person suffering from anorexia does not need to be emaciated or underweight to be struggling. Studies have found that larger bodied individuals can also have anorexia, even though they may be less likely to be diagnosed due to cultural prejudice against fat and obesity.

Conceptual Framework Pertaining Anorexia Nervosa

There are a few theories social workers use in order to help their clients with AN, but the theory I would use is the Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory, which divides the person's environment into five different levels: Microsystem, Mesosystem, Ecosystem, Macrosystem, and Chronosystem. The Microsystem is the closest to the person and the one in which they have direct contact (i.e., home, school, or/and work), includes interaction with family members at home, caregivers, and peers (classmates, friends, and/or co-workers) at school or at work, this is the most influential level of the ecological theory. The next level on the ecological theory is the Mesosystem; the interactions between the different microsystems which is the linkage of family, caregivers, peers group (i.e., child's parents actively involved in child's friendships or individual's friendship with peers out of the work environment). The third level on the ecological theory is Ecosystem; is the environment in which the individual is not involved, which is external to his or her experience, but nonetheless affects him or her anyway (i.e., parent stresses over work and comes home and takes it out on the child, or spouse stresses out at work and comes home and takes it out on his or her spouse). The other level on the ecological system theory is Macrosystem which is the culture in which the individual lives in instances with an individual suffering with AN how does the family and friends view AN, stigma and stereotype, as well as society's expectations of how people should look. The last level is Chronosystem; consists of all of the experiences that a person has had during their lifetime (i.e.; environmental events, major life transitions, and/or historical events). A person who suffers from Anorexia Nervosa, they do not have a single identifiable cause there are a various different factors that can play in the person's likelihood of having AN like psychological, social, biological, and external factors which as the social worker we should be able to identify them and make a change and help them cope in a better way by then using Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) which CBT aims to reinforce better eating behavior and encouraging more positive thinking about him or herself try to change the black and white thinking as well.

Community Wellness in Anorexia Nervosa

The National Eating Disorder Association (2018) states that at a given point in time between 0.3%-0.4% of young women and 0.1% of young men will suffer from anorexia. A study published by the Biological Psychiatry (2007) studied 9,282 English speaking americans and asked them about mental health conditions in which eating disorders was one of the options and they found out that 0.9% of women and 0.3% of men had anorexia during their life. In another study (Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 2010) that was followed for eight years using a group of 496 adolescent girls age 12 until they were 20, researchers found that 5.2% of the girls met the DSM-5 criteria for AN, and other eating disorders. In another study done by Eric Stice and Cara Bohan (Eating Disorders in Child and Adolescents Psychopathology, 2012) they found that between 0.9% and 2.0% of females and 0.1% and 0.3% develop AN, and subthreshold AN occurs in 1.1% to 3.0% of adolescent females. In an article Prevalence and Implications of Eating Disordered Behavior in Men (2014), males have a higher risk of dying than women because they are diagnosed much later because of stigma and stereotyping that AN is a women's eating disorder, males do not develop eating disorders even though they make up 25% of individuals with AN. Research has proven that the prevalence of AN is amongst adolescent females but other research has shown me that stigma and stereotyping also plays a part in our society which has made AN a women's mental health ,therefore, men may be excluded from eating disorder, which is not the case; AN does not discriminate.

Dialectic Nature of Social Work Practice in Anorexia Nervosa: Conflicts & Dilemmas

Anorexia happens in stages even though it is not felt by the individual, and every individual's experience is completely different than another individual's everperience. Therefore a social worker does not have one concrete method to help his of her client with AN. All individuals go through the Transtheoretical Model (stages of change): Precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, and relapse. During the precontemplation stage, the individual is unable to acknowledge their problematic behavior and does not want to change. A person who is suffering from AN during this stage denies allegation from friend and family members that have noticed some of the warning signs and symptoms (i.e., exercising excessively, drastic weight change, binge-eating/purging, restricting eating, and worried about appearance). Therefore this individual is hostile; projects anger and frustration towards those trying to help him or her. During the contemplation stage, the individual is well aware that he or she has a problem and has started to think about getting help. In order for an individual to get to the contemplation stage he or she has to go through an event in there life that they are not willing to lose or go through (i.e., lose a friendship, become terminally ill, it can vary for every individual). They no longer want to use this disorder as a coping mechanism for dealing with stress or challenges in their life because they know it has become a concern. During the preparation stage they begin to connect with change talk for example, I do not want to die, therefore I am ready to change my eating habits and get some help. After preparation it is action, this stage is where the individual has made a change in their behavior, environment, and thoughts. They are committed to the change and also continue practicing their behaviors (i.e., sticking to their meal plan and/or their exercising plan). The maintenance stage the individual is focused on relapse prevention and building on positive changes by improving their health and happiness within themselves and happy with their physique. The individual builds new behaviors, new ways of thinking, healthy self care and coping skills with the help of social workers, support groups, and health professionals. Then, there is relapse, in this stage the social worker, health professions, support system, and individual find out their triggers what works and doesn't work for the individual suffering with AN because they return to their same old patterns, thoughts, and behaviors. A conflict can be the willingness of a person with AN, if the person does not wish to change, there will be no change, even if the child, adolescent is forced to go to a social worker by a parent or anyone concerned with their health also the health professions', social worker's, support systems' and individual's consistency in wanting to be better.

Anorexia Nervosa: Psychiatric & Allopathic Medicine

Even though AN is a mental illness AN can impact the body, extreme AN can lead to medical problems (i.e., anemia, disturbance in heart rhythm, kidney problems, dental problems due to the vomit acid affecting teeth, and osteoporosis low bone density). These medical problems will need various of testing and to be monitored by medical practitioners with experience in AN. Medical professionals like paediatrician, dietician or nutritionist, dentist, and physiotherapists to help care and treat individuals with AN. Nutritional counseling helps the person identify their fears about food and physical results of not eating well as well as helping the individual get educated on how to eat right, how to track what they are eating and eat in a healthier way instead of not eating at all. Then there is mental health management where we come in social workers or psychologists, which help the individual with various kinds of therapy, counseling, and psychological interventions (i.e., psychotherapy building the individual's self-esteem self-confidence, anxiety, depression and interpersonal relationships, other therapies like: CBT, Dialectical Behavioral Therapy DBT, Intensive Short Term Dynamic Psychotherapy ISTDP, Mindfulness Based Therapy, Group Therapy, Family Based Therapy, The Maudsley Approach, and Support Groups. Drug Treatment may be used to treat hormonal or chemical imbalances, individuals experiencing AN may use Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI) such as Zoloft, Prozac, Aropax, and Paxil. These antidepressants in AN are useful to stabilize weight recovery, as well as help with their anxiety and depression that coexists with this eating disorder.

Alternative Understandings & Approaches to Anorexia Nervosa

According to the organization Eating Disorders Victoria (2016) alternative approaches to AN can be Naturopathy, Acupuncture, Aromatherapy, Meditation, Hypnosis, and Homeopathy. These alternatives can be useful to the individual with AN in addition to psychological, nutritional, and medical treatments by reducing anxiety levels or help the individual reconnect with their own body.

References

Breanna. (n.d.). Anorexia Nervosa. Retrieved from
https://www.eatingdisorders.org.au/eating-disorders/anorexia-nervosa
Espie, J., & Eisler, I. (2015). Focus on anorexia nervosa: modern psychological treatment and guidelines for the adolescent patient. Adolescent health, medicine and therapeutics, 6, 9-16. doi:10.2147/AHMT.S70300
Lamy, L. (1970, January 01). Today's world from a psychologist's perspective. Retrieved from https://todays-psychology.blogspot.com/2011/12/bronfenbrenners-ecological-systems.html
Ribnick, Lauren. (2012). Engaging Clients in Eating Disorder Treatment; Reducing Dropout. Retrieved from Sophia, the St. Catherine University repository website: https://sophia.stkate.edu/msw_papers/79
Statistics & Research on Eating Disorders. (2018, September 14). Retrieved from https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/statistics-research-eating-disorders
What is Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/bronfenbrenner-ecological-theory/
Whitaker AH. An epidemiological study of anorectic and bulimic symptoms in adolescent girls: implications for pediatricians. Pediatr Ann. 1992 Nov;21(11):752-9. PubMed PMID: 1484750.

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Disorder and Symptoms Anorexia Nervosa

Contents

Psychological Disorder and Symptoms:
Gender-Related Information:
Treatment and Interventions:
Additional Research:
Summary:

Psychological Disorder and Symptoms:

Anorexia Nervosa is a disorder classified by extreme weight loss that is not appropriate for the adolescents or adults age. "Individuals with this disorder typically display an intense fear of gaining weight or of becoming fat" (American Psychiatric Association). Individuals not only fear weight gain when being at target level BMI but also when skinny. Weight loss can be an achievement for the individual and weight gain can be a failure for the individual. Often times the individual weighs themselves frequently to check weight and focuses on their body in the mirror to see which areas are "fat" on their body. These individuals realize that they are skinny but don't realize the extremes they are going to, medically in order to have the body they want (American Psychiatric Association).Symptoms that people generally have with Anorexia Nervosa are; decreased number of calories they should be taking in and reduction of food that they would usually eat. Some more severe symptoms are excessive exercising, purging either by vomiting or with laxative or binge eating. Not only are there physical symptoms that these individuals go through but there are mental ones too. These individuals are in denial of their weight loss and hardly ever complain about it. Problems with weight loss normally come up by the family when they realize how malnourished the family member is. An individual with this disorder relies heavily on self-esteem based off of what their "distorted" body shape looks like and the weight they have lost (American Psychiatric Association). Individuals that have severe symptoms often have bouts of depressive moods, isolate themselves socially and can become irritable. An individual with severe symptoms can also be concerned with eating in public, controlling their environment, and might look emotionally drained. Individuals might also turn to abusing drugs, medications, or alcohol in order to achieve weight loss target.

Gender-Related Information:

Specifically, what gender this disorder mostly occurs in which is "more than 90% are white females and 25% are white males" (Wing). The age of onset in individuals with this disorder is prior to 25 and symptoms are generally manifested by 25 to 30 years of age. However, this disorder is rising in young adolescents between the ages of 16-17 so precise statistics are hard to distinguish (Bemis).Etiology of this disorder comes from multiple aspects of the individual's life. There are several different factors that can impact this disorder. According to Kelly Bemis, there have been many clinical reports that have stated that anorexic behavior is first manifested in response to new situations for which existing skills seem inadequate; for example, entering college, marriage, or puberty itself.However, there are also four factors that impact the manifestation of symptoms as well. The first one is the biological dimension which involves being overweight, hormonal differences with puberty and neurological factors. The second one is the psychological dimension which involves individuals being dissatisfied with their body image or having low self-esteem, lack of control, physical or sexual abuse as a child. The third one is the social dimension which impacts the individual's attitude based off of parent's comments or interactions with their child's weight gain or with mothers who are concerned with their child's weight gain. Also, it could stem from being bullied when they were a child due to how much they weighed or they could experience peer pressure of other individuals who are watching their weight or taking laxatives to get rid of their food to have the "perfect body." The last impact is the sociocultural dimension which involves social comparison with other people, comparison with females or males on the television and cultural definition of beauty (Wing).

Treatment and Interventions:

Anorexia Nervosa has one of the highest mortality rates of any mental disorder, and data suggests that early improvement- both early treatment response as well as the recovery within a window of several years- are crucial prognostic indicators according to Heather Thompson-Brenner.Family therapy is just one of the therapies that can be used in treatment for Anorexia. Family therapists core focus is to involve the family and help them to understand that this is not just a problem but a disease for the individual. During this period the therapist helps the individual and the family to understand and work together to help the individual be a healthier person again. Some of the steps include creating a meal plan, helping the child succeed in eating by sitting there until their plate is finished, and not criticizing the child for their eating habits anymore. This therapy has been incredibly successful according to the study done by Leanna Isserlin and Jennifer Couturier.In this study, the therapist is centered completely on therapeutic alliance with the client and his or her family during the treatment. Treatment consists of the family members, the therapist, and the client to a line with each other in order to help the client feel safe and secure in their home environment. The alliance was measured by using the System for Observing Family Therapy Alliances Scale. The results were that clients that gained "85% of their ideal body weight at the end of the treatment had parents who showed a stronger therapeutic alliance with the therapist and adolescent during the treatment time. Overall, family-based treatment is best when the family member, client, and therapist all strive for a common goal which is to help the client be happy and healthy again (Isserlin).

Additional Research:

If I had more time to research this topic I would dive deeper into the psychodynamics of women and men's brains when having this disorder. I think it would be interesting to understand the differences between what a woman thinks with disease and what a man think with this disease. Women nowadays are so focused on the perfect body or trying to mirror their body off of a character on a tv show or a celebrity in a magazine. It just interests me what men think; do they compare themselves to other men around them or do they focus on only their body. Obviously, men are either good at hiding eating disorders or they just don't have enough records to prove that men are highly susceptible to Anorexia as well. I find it fascinating that the numbers of male and female differ so drastically when dealing with eating disorders. All in all, I would want to delve into the aspects that a man goes through with anorexia to help me understand how men differ from women with anorexia.

Summary:

Anorexia Nervosa is a disorder that is classified by extreme weight loss that an individual is doing to themselves. Symptoms can vary between subtypes but they all focus on food whether the individual is forcing the food out of there body or starving themselves from the food. Etiology of Anorexia revolves around four main aspects that all involve either how the person sees themselves in society or how society sees them. Treatment for Anorexia is best through therapy whether it's psychotherapy, individual therapy, or family-based therapy. They all provide an environment for the individual to understand that they have a problem. Overall, Anorexia is a serious disorder that should be treated promptly to help the individual be happy and healthy.

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Submarine Volcanoes

Submarine volcanoes are ruptures on the earth's surface that are found underwater from which magma erupts. Volcanic activities on terrestrial land are widespread and accessible for study, and as a result, a lot is known about these activities. However, unlike terrestrial volcanoes, very little is known about submarine volcanic activities (Cashman & Fiske, 1991). It is because underwater volcanic activities, especially deep-sea volcanoes, are not easily detectable using hydrophones since water cannot boil as a result of the high pressure (above 218 atmospheres) exerted at the bottom of the sea. The occurrence of volcanic eruptions in shallow waters results in material being thrust to the air (""Submarine Volcanoes - Crystalinks,"" 2018).

During an eruption in deep-sea volcanoes, the topmost lava comes into contact with seawater and immediately forms as crust. The underlying lava continues flowing into the crust to form a pillow lava (""Submarine Volcanoes - Crystalinks,"" 2018). A seamount is a submerged mountain that forms as a result of this process. Seamounts build up over time and eventually reach the surface of the ocean to form islands such as the Hawaiian Island (""Underwater Volcanoes - Universe Today,"" 2018).

The most massive underwater eruption ever recorded was the eruption of Havre Seamount in 2012. Many scientists had somehow missed citing the volcano but managed to get the large floating rock that was generated as a result. The rock covered 400 square kilometers before it dispersed (Dockrill, 2018).

Submarine volcanoes can be classified into two: those created through the slow discharge and bursting of huge lava bubbles and those formed in a quick explosion of gas bubbles. Lava affects marine life and ecosystems differently than gas which is very important to distinguish the two (Cornell, Templeton, & Staudigel, 2016).

Scientists have developed techniques that use sounds and images to identify and differentiate between the two types of eruptions. The technology was used successfully in 2009 to observe the West Mata Volcano erupt in several ways. Video and audio were used to study the sounds made by slow lava bursting and the noises made from the release of hundreds of gas bubbles (Cornell, Templeton, & Staudigel, 2016).

According to Mastin et al., violent eruptions of submerged volcanoes are not just as a result of water mixing with magma. They believe the eruption occurs in two steps: that is, the flow of magma in a channel below the water table followed by the jetting of water through the water surface. This mechanism was evident on 3 April 1977 in Alaska when a hydro magmatic blast was preceded by a lava lake draining and the crumbling of the crater walls.

The knowledge of Seamounts has triggered research on various diverse fields including volcanology, geology, geochemistry, physical oceanography, and marine biology among others. Scientists have come up with theories to explain the impact of submarine volcanoes on, among others, tectonic plate movements, stress on underwater lithosphere and chemical composition of Earth's mantle.

The active undersea volcanoes provide a favorable habitat for various types of fungi. Fungi of unknown species have been found in multiple seamounts. These include hydrocasts near hydrothermal plumes from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge that is found near the Azores and in Paci?¬?c sea-?¬‚oor sediments. Researchers like Gadanho and Sampaio have discovered yeasts from Atlantic plume waters in 2005 leading to the fact that the deep-sea hydrothermal habitat may contain different types of microbial organisms including both eukaryotes and prokaryotes (Cornell, Templeton, & Staudigel, 2016).

Although the majority of seamounts are extinct, there are many other active submarine volcanoes which scientists continue researching on to be able to understand the way they function. They also try to find new technologies that will make detecting and researching these weird phenomenam easier. Seamounts will continue emerging and may even end up becoming islands which someday humans can live on, just like the Hawaii Islands (Mastin et al., 2004).

Some seamounts are circular or conical with a magma chamber within the volcano. Large seamounts often lie above hot spots, which are sections in the deep mantle associated with plumes of molten rock rising and melting through the overlying tectonic plate to supply magma to seamounts. These plumes have a long lifespan, and they continue to melt through tectonic plates passing over them resulting in a series of volcanoes over time. Examples of Islands that were formed as a result of hot spots include The Hawaiian Islands, the Galapagos Islands, the Azores, and the Cobb-Eikelberg (Mastin et al., 2004).

Underwater volcanoes greatly influence the shape of the ocean floor. The ocean's lithosphere comes under enormous stress from seamounts resulting in deflections. Most published models estimate stress differences between 2 and 3 kbar per kilometer of deviation with maximum values approaching 10 kbar (Lambeck & Nakiboglu, 1980). The lithosphere tends to be thinner when loads from seamounts are high and thicken with reduced loads. Models have been developed to explain the lithosphere's flexural rigidity by considering forces from the magma below the ocean (Lambeck & Nakiboglu, 1980).

Observing the activity of active underwater volcanoes, have helped scientists gain a better understanding of the formation, evolution, and composition of large islands such as Hawaii. Studies are however made difficult due to associated high costs as most seamounts form below the oceans' surface. Their heights also regularly change, growing as a result of repeated episodes of volcano growth and reducing as due to rapid flank collapse. Often, the rates of change are high and make it difficult to make consistent observations. Variations of up to 630 million cubic meters have been recorded for growth and 110 million cubic meters for collapse (Schmincke, 2013).

Seismic swarms are a common phenomena accompanying submarine volcanic eruptions. These earthquakes are have different magnitudes and usually grow stronger as they migrate. Earthquakes rates at less than 2.5 M were recorded to have peaked at 4.4 Metres on El Hierro in 2011 (Schmincke, 2013). Other observations made during this event were a constant vibration, resulting from the fast rise of the magma, changes in the color of the water and hot volcanic bombs hovering on the surface of the ocean. In some cases, the seismic activities resulting from underwater volcanoes reach the dry land and cause tsunamis that result in massive destruction. Coastal regions are at the most significant risk when this occurs (Schmincke, 2013). A tsunami resulting from an underwater explosion back in 1883 was recorded to have caused more than 36000 deaths. The formation and characteristics of the tsunamis formed are influenced by factors such as the amount of flux flowing and the size of the explosion. Currently there are no systems designed to deal with tsunamis that result from activities such as submarine explosions. Studies into this underwater activity may provide further insight into the development of more advanced and capable tsunami warning systems.

Hydrothermal fluids from submarine volcanoes show significant disparity in the levels of CO2 and pH. Some of the vapor emitted recorded high levels of acidity or alkalinity while others had higher concentrations of CO2. These result in variations in the levels of CO2 and acidity in the water significantly influencing aquatic life. A study of The Kolumbo, however, found that the emissions, which are 99% CO2, were trapped inside a lake inside the crater 350 meters below the ocean surface. It resulted in the emissions having no significant impact on the upper 100 meters of the ocean waters (Karatsolis et al. n.d).

Further research has shown that of the CO2 emitted, more than 80% comes from slab sources (Resing et al., 2009). Classification of underwater volcanoes based on their level of hydrothermal activity resulted in 3 groups: strong level, low level, and no action. Strong activity volcanoes are those from which samples taken are concentrated enough to enable identification of the source while concentrations in low activity volcanoes cannot allow for such. Low activity volcanoes are easy to spot, but this gets harder as the activity level continues to diminish (Resing et al., 2009).

Most of the underwater volcanic activity takes place deep in the ocean creating a chain of underwater mountains, some of which grow beyond the surface forming islands. The mid-ocean ridge, which extends for thousands of miles below the ocean, is an example. The spread of tectonic plates can explain the high levels of activity in this region. This area alone is said to have more volcanoes than there are on the dry land. The Pacific Ocean alone is estimated to have over 4000 volcanoes.

On land, volcanoes have given much insight into the dynamics of submarine volcanoes. The later has however had limited research due to factors such as cost and difficulty in making observations under water. Most volcanic activities in the deep ocean often go undetected as well. It is however evident that these underwater activities have a significant impact on the ocean's ecosystem. Its effect may in some cases be felt on land in the form of tsunamis and earthquakes especially where the activities take place close to the land. It is therefore an important area for more research and study to be done.

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Volcanoes: a Blessing or a Curse?

Volcanoes. You've heard of them; they're big, scary, and just plain dangerous. But are volcanoes somehow beneficial for people and the environment? Little do many people know, volcanoes actually do less harm than good. Volcanoes, though it sounds crazy, actually benefit the environment a lot. The fiery lava that spews all over the place leaves rocks and ash in its path that in time - a lot of time - provide nutrients and rich soil that make plants extensively flourish and grow. They also cool down the earth. I know it sounds inconceivable, but it's a legitimate proven fact. The ash that volcanoes make when they erupt protects the earth from solar radiation which is detrimental to the eye, microscopic life, and could cause skin cancer. Although this may be true, volcanoes are occasionally deadly and suffocating. When erupting, volcanoes emit lava, rocks, ash, and a combination of gases. CO2 heats up the planet, though it takes a while, and ash suffocates and causes many people to leave their homes. Volcanoes are a blessing and a curse to our world, and here are the leading causes why.

Let's talk about plants. They give us oxygen, produce energy and nutrients for us, and can be turned into clothing and shelter. When plants thrive in small gardens, people celebrate. Plants are praised and cherished throughout the world. So how and why are volcanoes good for them? Well, plants require water, Co2, nutrients, and energy from the sun to survive. Ash and rocks from volcanoes carry huge amounts of nutrients and provide drainage when they are weathered down to soil, a process that can take many years. An example of this is in Italy. A municipality in Italy called Naples is home to the volcano Mount Vesuvius. This area is full of plants and greenery; although Italy is known to be a country with typically poor quality soil. Mount Vesuvius had two major eruptions on March 17th, 1944. Volcanoes, along with being a superfood to plants, also help cool the earth. Among the many gasses and minerals volcanoes release, there is ash and sulfur dioxide. These particular deposits block the sun's powerful rays from hitting earth. When volcanoes erupt, they boost many minerals straight up into the stratosphere with intense force. Ash and sulfur block dangerous rays while other elements such as CO2 actually contribute to the growth of greenhouse gases. In the long run, volcanoes heat up the atmosphere, but the cooling elements in a volcano work very powerfully and much quicker than the heating elements. They don't last for long though, and soon the cooling produced by a volcano will be nonexistent, making way for the heat that slowly but surely will come, whether it's ten years after a volcano erupts or longer. It is important to realize, though they greatly help the environment, volcanoes are also very destructive.

Ash, lava flow, and pyroclastic flow are all extremely dangerous products of volcanoes that can be precarious and fatal. Ash from volcanoes can become so thick that it is incredibly hard to breathe, along with covering everything and anything. The infamous Pompeii tragedy is an example of the treterous effects of volcanic ash. In 79 A.D., a volcano entombed Pompeii in thick layers of ash. Thousands of people died and the hazardous city was deserted. Lava flow is generally not pernicious because it usually moves too slow to hurt humans, but does desolate and destroy houses and buildings. A pyroclastic flow is almost definitely the most destructive of all the volcanic properties. A pyroclastic flow is a mixture of lava flow, lava fragments, and volcanic gasses. It travels down the volcano at incredibly high speeds that are usually 100-200 km per hour but can also travel up to 700 km per hour (430 mph). A pyroclastic flow can destroy anything in its path, including buildings, because of the kinetic energy it holds. In Japan on June 3rd, 1991, a pyroclastic surge killed 43 people, two of which were volcanologists.

A pyroclastic surge is alike a pyroclastic flow but is less dense. It has more gas than rock, unlike a pyroclastic flow, which has more rock than gas. Pyroclastic surges are more uncontrollable and dangerous than a pyroclastic flow. Both are hard to prevent, the best thing to do in an event where a pyroclastic flow or a pyroclastic surge is present is to simply leave. Volcanoes can be helpful and harmful to the environment. They help the growth of plants, heat and cool down our planet, and can cause lots of harm to buildings and people. But are volcanoes good or bad? The answer is neither. Volcanoes build and destroy, create and eradicate, but in the end, nature is just taking its course. Volcanoes are a part of life, like it or not, and they are vital to the earth. Volcanoes are an important part of nature and culture, and whether they send pyroclastic flows rolling down their sides or give plants life, it's important to acknowledge that they are here for a reason, and they will continue to be a part of growth throughout humanity.

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Extraterrestrial Volcanoes

Contents

Terrestrial Volcanoes
Planetary Volcanoes
- Mars
- Venus
- Mercury
Lunar Volcanoes
- Luna
- Io
- Cryovolcanoes
- Enceladus
- Titan
- Triton
- Pluto
Bibliography

A volcano is defined, by NASA, as an opening on the surface of a planet or moon that allows material warmer than its surroundings to escape from its interior. While volcanoes are a generally thought of as a feature of Earth, there are plenty of other planets and even moons with a range of extinct, dormant, and active volcanoes in our solar system, and presumably in others as well. Once a feature has been officially defined as a volcano, it is then further classified into one of three designations, mons, tholus, and patera, based on their external presentation as defined by the International Astronomical Union, or IAU. Montes are any mountains, while tholi are generally hills or small domical mountains, and paterae are irregular or complex craters with scalloped edges. The term volcano is pretty vague and many different variations on the feature can be found on a variety of different celestial objects throughout the solar system.

Terrestrial Volcanoes

There are four main types of volcanoes on Earth: cinder cone, composite, shield, and lava dome. Cinder cones are the simplest and happen when, over time, the lava that is spewed into the air rains back down and forms a cone with a bowl-like crater at the top. These volcanoes rarely peak much higher than 1,000 feet. Composite volcanoes are also known as stratovolcanoes and can reach thousands of meters tall. They have a system that allows for magma to be pulled from the mantle itself up to the surface, and often erupt violently, like Mount Saint Helens. Shield volcanoes are large and broad and resemble shields from above hence the name. The lava that pours out of these is thin, which allows it to travel easily down the shallow sides of the volcano, building up into many layers over thousands of small eruptions. Lava domes, or volcanic domes, are also caused by build up of lava over time, but this lava is thick, and the domes grow from the lava expanding within. These types are generally more specific to terrestrial volcanoes, but they also serve as a base point for understanding extraterrestrial volcanoes, especially shield volcanoes.

Planetary Volcanoes

Mars

Volcanoes can be found on all four of the terrestrial planets, but most of those found outside of the Earth are presumed to be dormant or extinct. Mars hosts the largest known volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons, which is 624 km wide, which is comparable to the size of the state of Arizona, and 25 km high, whereas Mount Everest is a little under 9 km. Most volcanoes on Mars are significantly larger than those on Earth, which can be attributed to its lack of tectonic activity. Terrestrial volcanoes are created by the shifting, and subsequent crashing, of Earth's tectonic plates over top of a hot spot within the somewhat liquid mantle, and as the plates move over the hot spot multiple volcanoes are fed. Mars does not have tectonic plates or a liquid mantle, and so significantly more magma is spewed out of a singular volcano, which then piles up into a larger and larger volcano. Martian volcanoes are assumed to be extinct since the estimate for the most recent eruption on the planet was from Arsia Mons around 50 million years ago, at around the same time as the Cretaceous??“Paleogene extinction. Volcanic activity is an integral part of Martian history and composition, even if there has not been any recent activity.

Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the solar system

Artistic Rendition of a volcano erupting on Mars

Arsia Mons, Mars' last active volcano

Venus

Venus has three main types of volcanoes, two of which are found on other celestial bodies and one that is exclusive to Venus. The most prevalent volcanoes are shield volcanoes, but they tend to be wider and shorter than those on Earth and Mars, likely because of its dense atmosphere. Venus also has lava domes, but they are often referred to as pancake domes because they are significantly larger than those found on Eart, sometimes up to 100 times so. The volcanic feature that is found exclusively on Venus is called a corona, which is an upwelling of material from the mantle that contains and is surrounded by volcanoes and lava flows. There is plenty of evidence of past volcanic activity on Venus, but is also the only other planet in the solar system, aside from Earth, thought to be actively volcanic. Current volcanic activity on Venus would explain the frequent flux in sulfur dioxide above the clouds, as well as the bursts of radio energy that occasionally observed coming from the planet, but until some volcanic activity is observed, Venus cannot be classified as active.

Nasa Image of Sapas Mons, a Venusian Volcano

An Image of Venus's Pancake Domes

A Computer generated view of a Venusian volcano from 1995

Mercury

Mercury has not been volcanically active for around 3.5 billion years, but there is proof on the planet of volcanoes in its past. Mercury has a very small mantle, which is the part of terrestrial planets that produce the energy needed for volcanic activity through radioactive decay, and so it lost its internal heat much faster and its volcanism much earlier than the other planets. However, there are extensive smooth plains on Mercury, similar to the Luna's maria, where, billions of years ago, lava flowed across the surface and filled in the depressions. These smooth plains prove that at one point there was volcanic activity on Mercury, even if it has long since ended.

Lunar Volcanoes

Luna

The volcanoes on Luna, Earth's very own moon, seem to have been dormant for about a billion years, but the maria covering a significant amount of the near side of the moon is proof that there once was volcanic activity. These seas are similar to large parking lots, paved over and flattened out by lava flows earlier in the Moon's life. Their location solely on the near side of the Moon implies that the volcanic activity was impacted in some way by the Earth, and adds another layer to the relationship between the two celestial bodies. Recently there has also been the discovery of Irregular Mare Patches, or IMPs, which are smaller spots on Luna that appear to be the product of volcanic activity, but some seem to be as young as 50 million years old. These IMPs mean that there could have been active volcanoes on the Moon during the time of the dinosaurs, and changes our perspective on the evolution of Luna. This also means that the interior of the Moon is likely warmer and possibly less dead than we previously believed.

The darker sections are the maria, evidence of a volcanic history for Luna

A close up of a volcano on Io, taken from the Galileo spacecraft

Jupiter's moon Io has a very colorful exterior due to its volcanism

Io

Io is the most volcanically active object in the Solar system and thereby has the youngest surface, which is ironic when considering that its fellow Jovian moon Callisto has the oldest. Io's volcanism is a product of its location, being the closest of the Galilean Moons to their host planet Jupiter. Tidal forces from Jupiter are competing with tidal forces from Ganymede and Europa, two of the other Galilean Moons that are in resonance with Io, and these fighting forces cause Io's orbit to be highly eccentric. This eccentric orbit causes Io to flex as it revolves around Jupiter, and this flexing heats the moon in a process known as tidal heating. This heat is what allows for Io's volcanism, although the specifics of how it works are still being researched.

Cryovolcanoes

There are also some places in space that have ice volcanoes, known as cryovolcanoes, that instead of spewing out molten rock erupt volatiles, which are chemical compounds and elements with low boiling points. Cryovolcanoes happen on items further out from the sun, where it is cold enough for their surface to freeze, and there are several theories on the different methods these objects use to keep their internal temperature high enough to contain liquid. One seen in most moons with cryovolcanoes is tidal friction that stretches the planet enough to warm its core and give it a liquid interior, but there are other possibilities as well.

Enceladus

Enceladus is a moon of Saturn, a possible home for life, and a host of what seems to be at least one cryovolcano. On its southern pole, the moon spews out a plume of mostly water from spots within its Tiger Stripes, which are four large, linear depressions on the surface of the planet. This liquid water is believed to come from an internal ocean under the icy outer layer of Enceladus, and it is believed that Saturn's tidal friction is keeping it warm enough to remain in a liquid state. This cryovolcanic activity is actually the cause of Saturn's E ring, as the water freezes into chunks of ice and begins to orbit Saturn along with Enceladus.

Enceladus, Saturn's 6 largest moon

A false-color view of Enceladus's plumes

Enceladus' eruption as captured by Cassini

Titan's thick haze and nearly opaque atmosphere make it seem featureless

A topographic computer model of Sotra Facula, an apparent cryovolcano on Titan

The south pole of Triton, Neptune's largest moon

An artist's rendition of volcanoes on Triton

Titan

Titan is Saturn's largest moon, the second largest moon in the solar system, the only moon in the solar system with a substantial atmosphere, and is also believed to have cryovolcanic activity. The thick haze surrounding the planet and its nearly opaque atmosphere make Titan's surface very difficult to study, but recent flyby missions have suggested that volcanic activity is a highly likely possibility. Volcanic activity would explain the continuous supply of fresh methane found in Titan's atmosphere, and what seems to be lava flow surrounding mountains on the moon. Although there is currently no concrete evidence that Titan has volcanic activity, or that it is of the cryo variety, there is no concrete evidence to prove the reverse, either.

Triton

Triton is the largest moon of Neptune, and when Voyager 2 did a flyby of the moon in 1989 it discovered that it, too, has cryovolcanoes that are spewing nitrogen and ice 8 km into space. Little is known about the internal workings of these volcanoes because of the moon's distance from Earth, but it has been observed being actively cryovolcanic.

Pluto

When the New Horizons space probe was launched in 2006, astronomers expected to find Pluto and its moon Charon to be icy wastelands, just hunks of frozen rock floating out in the Kuiper Belt. They were shocked when they found a high level of geologic activity on the two objects, and evidence of possible cryovolcanoes. There are two obvious spots on Pluto that are being looked into as volcanoes, Wright Mons and Piccard Mons, which appear similar to Mars' volcanoes. This is the first time features like this have been found on celestial bodies that are not terrestrial planets, and if they are indeed cryovolcanoes, this could change everything we know about them.

Pluto, taken by the New Horizons space probe

Wright Mons, a possible cryovolcano on Pluto

Charon, as taken by the New Horizons space probe

An Artist's rendition of a cryovolcano on Charon

Volcanoes are found on celestial bodies all throughout the solar system, and as space continues to be explored, new types of volcanoes are discovered. They differ in every possible way, from size to eruption composition, to formation, but they all tell a story about an active and constantly evolving solar system, and by extension, universe.

Bibliography

https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/DescriptorTerms

https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/volcanoes2/en/

https://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/atlas/olympus-mons.html

https://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/ocr_gateway_pre_2011/rocks_metals/3_does_the_earth_move2.shtml

https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2017/mars-volcano-earths-dinosaurs-went-extinct-about-the-same-time

https://www.universetoday.com/27333/types-of-volcanoes/

https://hagablog.co.uk/demos/enceladus/volcanism/index.html

https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/media/cassini-20081215b.html

https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/12/101215-saturn-moon-titan-ice-volcano-nasa-science-pictures/

https://www.space.com/38383-ancient-moon-atmosphere-from-volcanoes.html

https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2014/24nov_imps

https://www.nasa.gov/topics/solarsystem/features/io-volcanoes-displaced.html

https://astronomynow.com/2016/08/07/most-volcanic-activity-on-mercury-stopped-about-3-5-billion-years-ago/

https://geology.com/stories/13/venus-volcanoes/

https://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150708-the-volcanoes-found-in-space

https://www.nasa.gov/feature/pluto-s-big-moon-charon-reveals-a-colorful-and-violent-history

https://www.iflscience.com/space/nasa-think-they-found-enormous-volcanoes-plutos-surface-spew-ice-instead-lava-and-ash/

https://www.nasa.gov/feature/possible-ice-volcano-on-pluto-has-the-wright-stuff"

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