Asthma in Pediatric Patients

Contents

Abstract
Epidemiology of Asthma in the Pediatric Population
Tertiary Prevention Program for Asthma
Ethical and Cost-Benefit Considerations (Hubacek)
Conclusion

Abstract

Asthma is a leading chronic condition in the pediatric population within the United States. The prevalence of asthma has increased in modern times likely due to an increase in air pollutants in the environment. Asthma also has an economic burden associated with an increased number of missed school days per year and high emergency department admission rates. Genetic and lifestyle factors have been shown to predispose people to the development of asthma. A tertiary prevention program that involves the comprehensive use of the Asthma Action Plan, developed by the American Lung Association, can help gain better control of a patient's asthma and reduce the number of asthma related emergency department visits. This plan requires the cooperation of school nurses, physicians and parents in order reach its maximum potential. This program can also help patients and their families gain more control of their health at a relatively low personal and economic cost.

Epidemiology of Asthma in the Pediatric Population

Asthma is the most common chronic disease in childhood in resource-rich countries, including the United States (Sawicki, & Haver, 2018). It is estimated that 14 million days of school are missed due to asthma in the United States each year (Sawicki, & Haver, 2018). The prevalence of asthma can be contributed to a genetic component in addition to several environmental factors. These environmental factors include: diet, air quality, smoking, antibiotic use, and allergies (Patel, Henderson, Jeffreys, Davey, Smith, & Galobardes, 2012). If asthma is left uncontrolled, this disease can become costly due to the potential for life-threatening symptoms that may require admission to an emergency department or hospital. By implementing a structured program with coordination from the patients, parents, school and provider, these costs can be minimized. Epidemiologic Parameters and Significance of Disease (Shafer) Asthma has been an increasing problem in the United States over the last two decades, particularly in children under 18 years old. According to the Center of Disease Control and Prevention, asthma rates of the total population increased by 12.3% from 2001-2009, making the prevalence of asthma in the United States 8.2% (2011, p. 547). The prevalence of asthma in children jumped and then plateaued (Sawicki & Haver, 2018). Data collected by the Center of Disease Control and Prevention between 2001-2009 showed that the prevalence of asthma in children was at 9.6%, which was increase from previous years (2011, p. 547). With increased awareness and intervention, the prevalence of asthma in children did show a decrease to 8.3% from 2013-2016, especially in children under the age of 5 (Sawicki & Haver, 2018).

Asthma is a serious, chronic disease that comes with a lifetime need for medical treatment. Poor asthma management can result in hospitalization and sometimes death. According to the American Lung Association, asthma is the third leading cause of hospitalization among children under the age of 15 years (2018, para. 7). Although asthma-related death is rare in children, there were 169 children who died in 2016 due to complications of asthma (Asthma and Children Fact Sheet, 2018). The American Lung Association also reported that in 2010 there were approximately 640,000 emergency room visits due to asthma in those under 15 years of age (2018, para. 8). Asthma continues to be a prevalent chronic disease in the United States, particularly in the pediatric population. Due to its multifactorial development, additional research must be conducted to better understand the pathophysiology of the disease. Genetic Markers of Asthma (Hubacek) Asthma is a common disease that is known to develop due to genetic and environmental factors. Many studies have been completed and further research is still being done to determine which genes are responsible for genetic inheritance of asthma. Asthma does not follow a typical Mendelian path of inheritance, instead the asthma phenotype is expressed non-linearly and is highly variable so it is more difficult to make predictions of the rate at which it is passed down to offspring (Thomsen, 2015, para. 2). Important factors for determining the inheritance of asthma include: degree of genetic relation to the relatives with asthma and the severity of the asthma and the age at which the relative developed asthma (Thomsen, 2015). The recurrence risk of asthma in children with one affected parent is around 25%, whereas the risk if both parents are affected is around 50% (Thomsen, 2015, para. 3). Ober & Yao found that asthma has significant genetic contributions, with heritability estimates varying between 35% and 95% (2011, p. 10). Thomsen brings to light that twin studies have shown there is an increased chance of developing asthma if someone who has very similar genetic composition has the condition (2015). For example, the risk of asthma in both identical twins is much higher than that of fraternal twins (Thomsen, 2015). At this point in time, there are several genes that have been found to correlate to the inheritance of asthma. In 2010, the largest study regarding the genetics of asthma was conducted genotyping 26,475 participants, over half of which had asthma (Thomsen, 2015). This study revealed 9 genes that are responsible for the asthma phenotype. The genetic markers involved in the inheritance of asthma include: the gene for nonmuscle isoform of myosin light chain kinase (nmMLCK), ADAM33 on chromosome 20p13, ILIRL1 and IL18R1 on chromosome 2, HLA-DQ on chromosome 6, IL33 on chromosome 9, SMAD3 on chromosome 15, ORMDL3 and GSDMB on chromosome 17, and IL2RB on chromosome 22 (Ober & Yao, 2011; Zhou, Wang, & Garcia, 2015; Thomsen, 2015). The study conducted by Zhou, Wang, & Garcia demonstrated nmMYLK dependent gene expression differentiates the severity of asthma in patients (2015). The ADAM33 gene has been specifically linked to the bronchial hyperresponsiveness in asthma in addition to airway remodeling (Thomsen, 2015). The ORMDL3 gene, in particular, was associated with childhood onset, whereas the HLA-DQ gene was related to later-onset asthma. Further, the results showed that 38% of all cases of childhood-onset asthma were attributable to a combination of the identified genes (Thomsen, 2015, para. 11). The extent of research completed thus far does indicate that genes are responsible for the development of asthma. However, additional research still needs to be done in order to better predict the inheritance pattern of asthma. Family Genogram of Asthma (Hubacek) This genogram illustrates there is an increased probability of developing asthma if a close family member has asthma. This is seen as both twins inherited asthma from their mother, likely due to their similar genetic makeup. In addition, this genogram demonstrates with Aimee and Jerome's children that there is a 25% recurrence rate of asthma when one parent is affected. Environmental and Lifestyle Factors (Shafer)

Asthma is a multifactorial disease that is affected by genetics, environmental factors and lifestyle choices. There are a multitude of environmental factors that are said to exacerbate asthma, including diet, air quality and pollution, smoking, antibiotic use and exposure to different allergens (Patel, Henderson, Jeffreys, Davey Smith, & Galobardes, 2012). According to Kravitz-Wirtz et al., there is evidence showing that exposure to air pollutants in utero and in the postnatal years can have an effect on the development of asthma later in life (2018). The fetal lungs begin to develop in the later trimesters of pregnancy and continue to mature until 3 years of age (Kravitz-Wirtz et al., 2018). The lungs are highly susceptible to environmental toxins due to the permeability of cells lining the respiratory tract (Kravitz-Wirtz et al., 2018). The absorption of toxins via the respiratory tract endothelium seems to contribute to the development of asthma later in life (Kravitz-Wirtz et al., 2018). There is also a correlation of the development of asthma in children with lower socioeconomic status (Kravitz-Wirtz et al., 2018). According to Kravitz-Wirtz et al., children in under-resourced neighborhoods lack access to proper health care, therefore increasing their stress levels, contributing to poorer nutrition status and exposing them to more air pollutants (2018, para. 6). The combination of these lifestyle and environmental factors seem to have an increased risk of asthma in children across the United States (Kravitz-Wirtz et al., 2018). Another significant risk factor for developing asthma is obesity (Asthma Risk Factors, 2018, para. 7). Reasons for this correlation are still unknown, but inflammation is suspected to play a key role (Asthma Risk Factors, 2018, para. 7). According to the American Lung Association, obese patients often use more medications, suffer worse symptoms and are less able to control their asthma than patients in a healthy weight range (2018, para. 7). The growing obesity rates in the United States, especially in pediatric patients, put more children at risk for developing asthma.

Tertiary Prevention Program for Asthma

At this point in time, asthma is a well-known diagnosis among the pediatric community. However, many pediatric patients suffer from uncontrolled asthma. Uncontrolled asthma increases the number of emergency department visits and hospital admissions, costing families thousands of dollars yearly. We would like to implement a tertiary prevention program to ensure better control of asthma in pediatric patients. This would reduce the number of asthma related emergency department visits and hospital admissions. The American Lung Association has created an Asthma Action Plan to be used for all patients with an asthma diagnosis. This plan includes three zones (green, yellow, red) to guide patients with their home asthma care when their symptoms are controlled, moderately uncontrolled, and severely uncontrolled, respectively (American Lung Association, 2018). In order for this plan to be effective, patients must receive education on how to use a peak flow meter, what the results mean, and how often they should test their lung function using this device at home. Upon diagnosis, providers should review this information with the patient and parents and have them demonstrate before the end of the appointment. Providers should also review when patients should return for a follow up appointment. The current form recommends following up within 24 hours of reaching the yellow zone (American Lung Association, 2018). This tool is not being widely used among pediatric patients with asthma. We would like to fully implement the use of the Asthma Action Plan form, Figure 2, within pediatrician offices and schools. This requires full cooperation of school nurses, patients, parents and the provider. Patients with asthma who attend public school will be required to have a follow up visit regarding their asthma treatment before the school year starts. The school will require the Asthma Action Plan to be completed and signed by the parent and provider. Spirometry should also be completed at this follow up visit to monitor lung function and determine whether or not the current treatment plan is effective for the patient to use during the school year. Two peak flow meters will be given to the patient to keep one at home and one at school along with duplicate controller and rescue medications. If the patient's asthma is not well controlled, they should follow up monthly and update their Asthma Action Plan until their symptoms consistently stay within the green zone. When a patient remains in the green zone, they should plan to follow up every 6 months.

Ethical and Cost-Benefit Considerations (Hubacek)

Monitoring asthma in previously diagnosed patients is fairly cost effective and non-invasive. There are not any ethical conflicts in our proposed tertiary prevention program for asthma due to its necessary and non-invasive nature. Asthma is most commonly tracked with the use of lung function tests such as peak flow and spirometry in order to determine the patient's baseline lung function and reevaluate the effectiveness of their prescribed treatments. According to Alliance Tech Medical, the typical cost of a peak flow meter for CPT code A4614 is $21.95 (2018). The cost may amount to even less depending on insurance coverage. Once a patient pays for a peak flow meter, they are able to reuse this device to evaluate their lung function at home and school. The use of this device outside of the medical office can help the patient determine whether or not their asthma is well controlled and help the patient decide if they need to make additional appointments to follow up. Spirometry is also another non-invasive procedure that has the ability to diagnose asthma and determine the effectiveness of asthma medications, particularly inhaled corticosteroids, with repeat tests. Alliance Tech Medical also suggests that this is an affordable test with a cost of $35 for CPT code 94010 and $65 for CPT code 94060 (2018). Compared to the cost of most tests in health care, these tests are fairly affordable and essential for managing asthma treatment.

The Asthma Action Plan forms from the American Lung Association can be downloaded for free to be filled out by a healthcare provider. Most common diagnostic methods and repeat follow ups are covered by insurance due to the high prevalence of this disease. The cost of purchasing a peak flow meter, asthma medications, and follow up appointments can add up, but they are necessary to prevent life threatening asthma attacks. Overall, the benefits of appropriately maintaining control of the patient's condition outweigh the cost of the associated medical fees.

Conclusion

Asthma is a serious and life-threatening disease that affects the population on a global scale. In 2016, the prevalence of asthma in children under 18 years old was 8.3% (Sawicki & Haver, 2018). Asthma is prevalent in highly developed countries and accounts for hundreds of emergency department visits, hospital admissions and missed school days (Sawicki & Haver, 2018). Parents diagnosed with asthma have a high chance of producing children with asthma, suggesting a genetic correlation (Thomsen, 2015). Some of the known genetic markers include ADAM33, ORMDL3, and HLA-DQ (Thomsen, 2015). Environmental factors and lifestyle choices also play a role in the development of asthma. Air pollutants, smoking, diet, antibiotic use and exposure to allergens have been shown exacerbate or trigger the development of asthma (Patel et al., 2012). Early life exposure to environmental toxins, low socioeconomic status, and childhood obesity put children at greater risk for becoming asthmatic (Kravitz-Wirtz et al., 2018; "Asthma Risk Factors" 2018). We chose to implement a tertiary prevention program using the Asthma Action Plan, an existing screening tool developed by the American Lung Association (2018). The Asthma Action Plan includes three zones (green, yellow, red) that correlate with the level to which the patient's asthma is currently controlled (American Lung Association, 2018). Our goal is to increase education and use of the Asthma Action Plan in primary care clinics. We also would require all public-school children diagnosed with asthma to have a clinic visit before the start of the school year, where they can fill out their Asthma Action Plan and receive extra medications and supplies. Our goal is to prevent severe asthma attacks and the costs associated with them. We identified that there are several major benefits of implementing this tertiary prevention program, including reduction of emergency department visits and hospital admissions, reduction of missed school days and earlier detection of asthma exacerbations. We did not identify any ethical dilemmas associated with this intervention. Asthma continues to be an ongoing problem in our country. It is imperative to control asthma at an early age to prevent complications. Implementation of the Asthma Action Plan could be extremely beneficial to help patients and parents manage asthma at home. Proper asthma management will reduce hospital admissions, emergency department visits, and the nationwide cost associated with asthma.

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Terrible Examples of Genocide

In this picture the people of Darfur are asking for help from international forces as they need safety and protection.We are able to see the distress and worry on their faces which appeals to our emotions. Luckily The U.S. and UN came to the rescue and built camps in Thailand for those who needed a place for security. They were able to provide them food and a place to sleep as they initially begged for. This source really shows how it was considered a genocide because it shows how desperate the people were for help. All they needed was protection from a much bigger stronger force. The killings and Starvations in Darfur ruined their country as well as the moral of many citizens. This is a good source because it was taken during that time and is of the victims which shows us the true emotion of what this genocide did to them. There was really no bias found in this source.

Resistance:

"Rescue and Resistance in Nanjing." Facing History and Ourselves. Accessed December 01, 2018. https://www.facinghistory.org/nanjing-atrocities/atrocities/rescue-and-resistance-nanjing.

When the Japanese attacked Nanjing many people fled the country and continued to fight against them because they were not giving up yet. Others that stayed in the country still fought as well as helped the ones that were injured or sick. The ones who refused to flee were staying to help people in the refugee camps where they provided safety. Many of the people felt they needed to stay and help those who needed it. They didn't want the Japanese to win and take over so they had to do what they has to and resist against them. In the letters they talked about the Committee safe groups that were made. This source is good since it directly explains what each person had in mind and how they planned to resist. Some people within the country believed that them staying there would make things worse. The injured and sick were already going to die so they saw no point in staying and trying help when they would just sacrifice themselves.

NICK B. WILLIAMS Jr. | Times Staff Writer. "Cambodian Resistance Goes on Offensive : Despite Differences, 3 Factions Operate as 'More of a Guerrilla Force'." Los Angeles Times. August 08, 1985. Accessed December 01, 2018. https://articles.latimes.com/1985-08-08/news/mn-3333_1_guerrilla-force.

The Cambodians resisted against the vietnamese by starting a movement and became almost like a Guerilla force. Since the Vietnamese drove them out of the camps they needed to step up. The Cambodians resistance movement was probably the most effective since quite a few Vietnamese soldiers were killed. In the Los angeles times it said In past years, the non-Communist factions operated close to their border bases. With all three factions now pressing to carry the fight to the interior, ?we are stepping on each other's toes,' Abdul Gaffar Peang-Meth, a spokesman for the Khmer Front, said recently (Los Angeles Times). Although the killing of some vietnamese may have been effective in showing they resist, both countries are just getting on each others nerve, therefore causing the unnecessary conflict that will continue. This is considered a good source because it was first written at that exact time so we as readers can get that full effect and know that the information we are obtaining is reliable. This bias in this is many think the Cambodians shouldn't have resisted and said they started the conflict between them. If they just backed off and didn't force into it, they would be fine.But as for the Cambodians they knew that standing by wasn't an option and they needed to resist against them.

Genocides we have studied:

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Accessed December 02, 2018. https://www.ushmm.org/remember/the-holocaust-survivors-and-victims-resource-center/benjamin-and-vladka-meed-registry-of-holocaust-survivors/behind-every-name-a-story.

This source has a collection of stories written from Holocaust survivors themselves, explaining their experience and feelings. One of the victims that survived was Jakob, he wrote his story and talked about what happened during the whole thing. He wrote In the ghettos, typhus, malnutrition and other diseases ravaged the population, which caused many deaths, especially among the elderly and children. It was a miracle that I survived typhus (Ushmm- Jakob). This quote shows what he went through along with many others and emphasizes the true struggles that Jews went through. Having a survivor write about the holocaust makes it so real which helps to relate to the reader and appeal to their emotions. The Holocaust is considered a genocide because all Jews were forced out of their homes and put into concentration camps where they were tortured to their death. In the letter Jakob talks about how some people think they know what it was like to be in the holocaust but there are actually no words to describe it. This can cause bias between victims and other people because outsiders have absolutely no idea what it was like and for them to say they do is very disrespectful.

Kifner, John. "Armenian Genocide of 1915: An Overview." The New York Times. December 07, 2007. Accessed December 02, 2018. https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/ref/timestopics/topics_armeniangenocide.html?mcubz

This is an article written by John kifner explaining an overview of the Armenian Genocide and what happened/ the causes. The Turks attacked the Armenians after WWI was over simply because the Armenians wanted to help Russia overthrow Turkey. Armenians were tortured and stripped of their pride when they were forced to go on marches naked in front of everyone.This is a good source since it was directly written from that point of time and shows the Armenians side of it instead of just the Turks intake. In this case,The turks decide what history is because they are the more powerful ones but as for this source it allows the Armenians to tell their story. The bias with this genocide is between the Turks and Armenians themselves. The Turks deny that a genocide took place because they're afraid of the truth coming out. The Turks tried to claim that they didn't even carry out genocide and it was the Armenians that brought it on themselves. For this reason some believe the Armenians owe them an apology as they did it for a reason.

Books:

Matuszak, Nancy. History behind the Headlines: The Origins of Conflicts Worldwide. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson/Gale, 2002.

This book talks about the torture the people of Nanjing went through as well as the war crimes being placed. This book is a good source because it shows what happened after the genocide was over and how the Japanese will be held accountable for their actions. They were finally held responsible in the end. Anyone that was on the Japanese side may now think other wise after reading this book. In the book it explains the truth about the genocide and exploits the Japanese making them look like the enemy they always have been. The only bias that could still be true is with the ones who still believe in the Japanese and think what they did was truly reasonable.

Showalter, Dennis E. History in Dispute. Farmington Hills, MI: St. James Press/Gale Group/Thomson Learning, 2002.

This book tackles the main question of why the Holocaust is portrayed so differently from other genocides. In the book it said that the specific people were targeted,the Jews, and defined differently, making it different from others. This is a good source because it really digs deep into the holocaust and exactly why it is a more talked about genocide. Readers will be able to understand not only why the holocaust is considered a genocide but also other genocides and the reasons for it. Since the Holocaust is very well known, after this book you'll know more about other genocides and get a feel for more terrible attacks, The holocaust isn't the only important one to note. The bias that this book takes on is the fact that other genocides are important to and need to get as much attention as the holocaust has. There's a lot to learn and understand and victims of other attacks should be given the opportunity to speak freely of the events.

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An Analysis of Asthma Among Black Americans Using the PRECEDE-PROCEED Model

Abstract

This paper explores the relationship between asthma and Black Americans through the PRECEDE-PROCEED model of health. The paper first explores the prominent diseases within the black population and then explains the significance of asthma in terms of symptomology, risk factors pertaining to the population, as well as comorbidity between asthma and other diseases prominent in the black population. Behavioral and environmental factors are explored followed by an analysis of available resources and policies. Finally, a dual intervention is proposed; the intervention would target parents and children to educate them about asthma as well as the importance of social support for children.

Among the diseases prevalent among the black population, such as diabetes, hypertension, and obesity; Black Americans have some of the highest asthma rates in the country (CDC, 2018). Asthma is a chronic respiratory disease which often begins in childhood, can be triggered by environmental irritants and is worsened by certain health behaviors (CDC, 2016). A lack of health education regarding asthma may result in missed school days, increased risk of emergency room visits and errors in emotional/physical perception (Ashley, Freemer, Garbe, & Rowson, 2017; Shields, Comstock, & Weiss, 2004; CDC, 2012). Although many health organizations have created plans to improve asthma statistics, Black Americans are still over twice as likely to develop asthma than White Americans (CDC, 2018); therefore, improvement in health interventions for Black Americans is necessary. Using the PRECEDE-PROCEED model, data will be used to better identify behavioral and environmental needs, preexisting and enabling factors, and current and possible resources which may be implemented into a more successful intervention plan.

The PRCECEDE-PROCEED model was developed as an all-encompassing planning model, divided between a research/planning phase (PRECEDE) and an action phase (PROCEED) (National Cancer Institute, 2015). The model analyzes behavioral and environmental, internal and external, and predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors. The model begins with a social assessment of the community's perceived needs and is then followed by an epidemiological assessment to prioritize these needs. A behavioral and environmental assessment then researches internal and external factors relating/contributing to the issue. This is followed by an educational and ecological assessment which examines predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors. The next step, administrative and policy assessment, begins the second phase of the model and looks at the availability of resources, organizational policies/ regulation that impact the intervention. The final four steps deal with implementation and evaluation of health promotion intervention (National Cancer Institute, 2015, p.41).

According to the CDC (2017), Black Americans have higher rates of premature morbidity from all causes than White Americans; morbidity rates escalate the earlier a disease emerges. Certain health disparities, such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, smoking, HIV/AIDS, and drug overdose; have prominent associations with Black Americans; however, the risk of a Black American developing asthma is over twice as likely compared with a White American (CDC, 2018). Further, other black health disparities, such as obesity and smoking, are strongly associated with asthma risk (CDC, 2016). An epidemiological study from 2001-2010 showed that black children's rates of asthma grew at almost a 4% yearly rate (Akinbami, Moorman, Simon, & Schoendorf, 2014). The study also showed that black children were almost twice as likely to have at least one asthma attack in the past year and over 7 times as likely to die from asthma compared with white children.

There are many internal and external factors which contribute to asthma development and aggravation. Internal factors consist of biological predispositions/ resistance to medications, beliefs about asthma severity, symptom detection/alexithymia (not being able identify and describe feelings), stress levels, and emotional/social stability. Black Americans had biological predispositions which showed a decreased response to asthma medications (Gamble, et al. 2010; Akinbami, et al. 2014). Beliefs about asthma, in other words not taking asthma seriously, may contribute to poor symptom detection which may contribute to the development of alexithymia. Stress levels contribute to internal irritation which can lead to asthma development or an asthma attack. Emotional stability relates to stress and may be a result of one's home/school environment.

External factors which contribute to asthma were exposure to violence, quality of living/work environment, family/ethnic support, living with a single mother, and living with a smoker. Exposure to violence and living with a single mother were both found to be most relevant to black children (Barile, Edwards, Dhingra, & Thompson, 2015). Violence may be found within one's home as well as within one's community. Quality of living/work environments are strongly tied to socioeconomic status both of which are often of poor quality for black individuals. According the United States Census Bureau (2017) Black Americans were the most likely to have only a high school diploma and had the second highest rate of unemployment and poverty. People with lower socioeconomic status (SES) are also more likely to be exposed to toxic living environments such as air/water pollution as well as poor work conditions which are conducive to asthma (Institute of Medicine, 2001). Health-related issues to economic instability included stress, sensory impairment, limited educational achievement and adult morbidity/mortality (Knopf et al., 2016). This implies that not only does low economic stability during childhood affect the individual, it may perpetuate the same problem to the next generation. Finally, smoking is a health disparity related to Black Americans (CDC, 2017). Smoking affects air quality and aggravates the lungs of asthmatics, increasing the likelihood of asthma development and attacks (CDC, 2016).

Predisposing factors related to asthma were poor asthma knowledge, perception of severity, overall asthma attitude, self-efficacy, and perception of responsibility. A lack of knowledge about asthma can lead to other predisposing factors such as overall attitudes about asthma, severity perception, and possibly self-efficacy (Hopkins Tanne, 2001). Self-efficacy and responsibility perception relate to the performance of maintenance behaviors (Bruzzese, 2012). Enabling factors were available policies/resources which led to a lack of education and influenced asthma perception, transportation, and living/working conditions. Getting access to education may be difficult due to transportation issues and limited resources. Reinforcing factors were family/community support, having a primary doctor, and self-perception. Having social support will aid in performing preventative and maintenance behaviors. Communicating effectively with one's doctor also aids in reinforcement of positive behaviors (Chiang, Huang, & Lu, 2003).

After collecting behavioral/environmental data, the two points deemed to be most critical were a lack of asthma education and a lack of social support. Many Black Americans do not have regular doctors, which may relate to their poor levels of, and access to, medical care and information (Hopkins Tanne, 2001). Black Americans are not properly educated on asthma symptomology and therefore may not realize they are suffering from asthma symptoms until symptoms become severe. Further, black children were almost 65% less likely (than white children) to have a follow-up after having an asthma-related emergency room experience (Shields, Comstock, & Weiss, 2004). Many of these problems could be solved with effective asthma education (Hopkins Tanne, 2001). Other ramification of a lack of education also manifested in asthma maintenance behaviors. An inverse relationship was found between age and asthma management in black adolescents (Bruzzese, 2012). The older children were, the less likely they were to effectively schedule taking medication, recognize trigger symptoms, or get help. Although there was a positive correlation with age and perceived responsibility, this may be the result of a disconnect between independence and self-care. This suggests that children with asthma need ongoing education on self-management. Further, mismanagement has been associated with depression, anxiety, (likely related to medical cost and perceived control) and dyspnea (labored breathing which will can make asthma worse) (Baiardini, Sicuro, Balbi, Canonica, & Braido, 2015). The other factor targeted by this intervention is social support. Many risk factors of asthma related to a lack of social support such as violence, stress, alexithymia, and low SES (Bellin et al., 2014; Ashley et al., 2017; Baiardini et al., 2015; Akinbami et al., 2014), whereas a significant protective factor is family/ethnic pride (Koinis-Mitchell et al., 2012). A study by Barile et al. (2015) showed that adverse childhood experiences were associated with lower emotional support, which was associated with a lower health quality of life. Additionally, the study found that low income and high unemployment was associated with lower emotional support. Finally, the study stated that adverse childhood experiences could prevent children from developing social relationships into adulthood. Therefore, childhood environment plays a large role in a child's development and potential. By limiting environmental factors like exposure to education and social support, a child's abilities may be compromised.

The proposed intervention will be divided into two components, an educational component and a support component. Each component of the intervention will be geared toward children and parents, with differing curricula. Two different education groups will be administered as parents and children will be taught separately. The first component will be administered in order to educate the target population on asthma severity, prevalence in Black Americans, risk factors, and the importance of maintenance. Maintenance includes (parents) scheduling doctor's appointments as well as (children) conducting self-assessment. Self-assessment includes monitoring trigger and asthma symptoms as well as taking medication consistently and responsibly. An effort will be made to explain that one's independence (as they age) means being their own doctor. Additionally, asthma education will include the benefits of performing protective behaviors, such as fewer emergency room visits.

The second part of the intervention deals with social support for children. A lack of social support, especially in an environment of violence, can create or exacerbate asthma. Further, children who had a lack of social support have shown to increase in likelihood of developing into an adult with a low SES (Barile et al., 2015). Parents will be taught about the importance of family support and strategies to use inside the home, while ethnic clubs will be offered as a way for children to learn about and take pride in their heritage while making friends. This will create a resource for children in which they celebrate their differences, instead of hiding them, which will increase pride and minimize discrimination. Additionally, children will learn coping techniques that can be used during times of inflammation/isolation. Research by Baiardini et al. (2015) showed that asthmatic people who learned effective coping skills showed less psychological morbidity, greater perception of control, and better disease management. It is also important to look for negative coping efforts, such as avoidance which may indicate risk of emotional instability.

This program will take place in community centers in the tri-state area (New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut) which should be easily accessible to community members. The tri-state area will be the preliminary location of the intervention due to its diversity in education, income, and culture (United States Census Bureau, 2009). The educational and support programs will be bi-weekly programs which will alternate programming (between the two components) based on the week; the program will last for four months. However, the children's clubs (support component for children) will be held weekly. Each component will be taught by a qualified black professional (a black doctor will teach the educational component, a black psychologist/social worker will teach the social support component, and a black cultural educator will be in charge of ethnic clubs) as race may also serve as an additional barrier to asthma education or implementation of positive asthma behaviors (as they will better understand their audience's cultural needs).

In order for program effectiveness to be measured, data will be collected during the first, eighth, and final week of the program. Data will be used for formative and outcome evaluation. Data collection will consist of qualitative and quantitative data. Participants will be given surveys (Perceived Support Scale, Brief-Coping Orientation of Problem Experienced (COPE) inventory scale) to fill out as well as have a saliva test to test relevant biomarkers (cortisol and C-reactive protein). It is anticipated that this intervention will yield improvement of >15% over baseline over the course of the program. Improvements of a lesser scale will be further interrogated for variables that may require modification for ideal success. If the program produces significant results, the program will expand to other states across the country. Where applicable, the program will be tailored to account for unique variables (i.e. travel, participant disability) to maximize success. Further, there will be continuous yearly follow-ups to make sure programs are still being run appropriately while still proving effective, which will be used for impact and process evaluation. Instructors as well as community/civic center staff will be evaluated on their maintenance of the program in accordance with intended implementation; further, yearly data reports of the program will be analyzed to assess the program's standing and possible need for refinement. The only resources necessary for this intervention are a community center and black healthcare professionals. Because this is purely an educational intervention it should not conflict with any legislation.

Although this study provided an in-depth analysis of relevant factors in asthma development and exacerbation, certain environmental factors like poverty were not explicitly part of the intervention plan. The intervention aids in education, which is often a limited resource as a result of poverty; however, asthma education will not help improve one's living or work conditions. Because the environmental conditions and legislature for each state is different, certain organizations are recommended as resources in order to minimize one's exposure to environmental irritants, such as the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (which has blogs and podcasts about reducing allergens in one's environment)(NIEHS, 2018) and the Environmental Protection Agency (which provides networks for community-based interventions as well as lists of local and national agencies that are asthma resources) (EPA, 2018), as well as looking into one's state policies regarding asthma.

Asthma is a disease which disproportionally impacts black children and whose effects may still be felt into adulthood. Risk factors for asthma include race/ethnicity, poverty, parental education level, health insurance coverage, environmental (air) quality, living with a smoker, premature birth/ early antibiotic use, Alexithymia, stress, violence, and lack of social support. Through analysis of the PRECEDE-PROCEED model, education and social support were deemed the two most influential factors in asthma related health; therefore, a dual-component intervention was proposed for children and adults. As individuals learn the importance of asthma rates, risks, and symptoms as well as the necessity of family/community support the asthma rates of Black Americans will decrease.

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The Theme of Survival in Life of Pi

Life of Pi is a novel by Yann Martel that illustrates man’s will to survive and an unlikely alliance that rises as a result. This is a story that plunges deep into every aspect of human nature, giving the reader an experience that is hard to forget. I recommend this book for those who need a new adventure in their life, as the mesmerizing words, phrases, and heart-stopping moments woven within the pages of this story are a blessing to the mind and soul. The story opens on the colorful life of Piscine Patel, an Indian boy whose family owns a popular zoo. Although his family business already gives him a remarkable title to bear, Piscine is quite the character all on his own. For instance, at only age fourteen, he practices Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam, melding the three religions together by finding what connects them all to each other. He is as equally faithful to one practice as he is to another.

Although this is frowned upon, Piscine is content with his faith and his life, with one exception: his name. It is often misheard, said incorrectly, or made fun of. When Piscine begins attending a new school, he introduces himself as “Pi”, and that is how he is known or the rest of the story. Over time, Pi’s parents grow unhappy with the Indian government. They wish to find freedom and a new life, and so they make plans for their many species of animals and set out on a ship to Canada, taking the creatures with them. But on the third night, Pi is awoken by a sound that is alien to him. Searching for an answer, he makes his way up to the main deck, where a state of pandemonium occurs. The ship’s crew are all hustling and bustling about. When Pi finally has a chance to recollect himself, he asks a few crew members what is going on, only to have a life jacket thrust into his hands and be thrown overboard, landing on one of very few lifeboats. There are no other human survivors. Pi’s family is lost. Pi is now trapped on a lifeboat in the middle of the Pacific, along with one hyena, one zebra, one orangutan, and one bengal tiger, who is called Richard Parker. Before Richard Parker, who has been hiding under the lifeboat’s tarpaulin, even shows himself, the hyena soon has both the zebra and the orangutan dead within several days.

Pi leads himself to believe that it is only himself and the hyena left aboard, until Richard Parker brings the creature’s life to a sudden and violent end. Terrified, Pi constructs a raft out of supplies found on the lifeboat, and attaches it to the end of the boat, putting as much distance between himself and Richard Parker as possible. For a while, Pi accepts the inevitable probability of his imminent death. And then he discovers something within himself; a fighting warrior who drives him to face his fear, and place his life back into his own hands. From then on, he decides to become dominant over Richard Parker, realizing he has nothing to lose. He works every day to show that he is superior, while also using some of his resources to keep Richard Parker alive. Soon, his fear is vanquished, and he and Richard Parker seem to be living in a civil manner, a relationship that, although rocky, depends on mutual trust.

They grow not only to tolerate each other, but to need each other as well. Remarkably, Richard Parker becomes the only thing keeping Pi’s sanity in check. Things are going well, until they find land. Their relationship, or alliance, or whatever it might be called, was unfortunately at an end. Pi was quickly rescued from the island, whereas Richard Parker, his only companion for months, stayed behind to begin a new life in the vast jungles of the island they had discovered. Confused, half out of his mind, and heartbroken, Pi watches with weary eyes as his last friend, the last connection to his past life, grows farther and farther away. For the rest of his life, he is forever grateful for this unexpected friend, who turned out to be the only thing keeping him alive through the tragic accident. Even as an old man with a family, he knows with every fiber of his being that Richard Parker is the reason he is still standing there today. Life of Pi may be fiction, but its effects on the human spirit are very real and very beneficial. If you love to read, and even if you don’t, this story is one that will keep you intrigued and intellectually stimulated. Yann Martel has created a masterpiece that will remain timeless forever.

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Romanticism in “The Fall of the House of Usher” by Edgar Allan Poe

The Fall of the House of Usher short by Edgar Allan Poe. Gothic literature is the gloomy side of romanticism. Gothic literature also honors emotions, imagination, nature, and supernatural events. Edgar allan poe saw dead as his muse for writhing. He also married his second cousin name virginia. Edgar Allan Poe's short story The Fall of the House of Usher is an example of Gothic literature because in incorporates architecture, weather, and foreshadowing.

Within the story, the architecture represents an element of Gothic literature,because the house has a zigzag crack in the direction of the small lake near the house. The house also has beautiful Gothic arches. The narrator said Made its way down the wall in a zigzag direction, until it became lost in the sullen waters of the tarn. and I entered the Gothic archway of the hall.pg.751. The zigzag crack and the Gothic archways of the house gives us the perfect Gothic setting.

In the story, the weather represents an element of Gothic literature, because when the narrator enters the house he is fill with an atmosphere of sorrow and gloom. The narrator said I felt that I breathed an atmosphere of sorrow. An air of ster, deep, and irredeemable gloom hung over and prevaded all. pg.751. This atmosphere affected the narrator once he enter. An was also making his friend Roderick more ill.

Within the story, foreshadowing represents an element of Gothic literature, because both Roderick and the narrator hear the sounds of madeline trying to out of her coffin. The narrator says Instinctive spirit prompted me -to certain low and indefinite sounds which came through the pauses of the storms.pg.758. Roderick says to the narrator yes, I hear it, and have hearit. Long-long-long-many minutes, many hours, many days, have i heard it.pg.761. This foreshadows that Roderick knew he had bury Madeline alive. It also tells us that madeleine is coming to get her revenge.

In conclusion Edgar Allan Poe's short story The Fall of the House of Usher contains three of the elements of Gothic literature which are architecture, weather, and foreshadowing. The Gothic architecture gave the house the complete Gothic setting. This story had a gloomy and sorrow atmosphere that tie in with the weather. It also incorporated a noise that foreshadows that she is coming to get her revenge for being bury alive by Roderick. In my opinion this is one of the best short stories that I have ever read because is very thrilling and Gothic.

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The Fall of the House of Usher: Disturbances, Derangement, Anxiety and Doom

The ancient, decaying House of Usher, filled with gloomy furniture of the room-of the dark and tattered draperies, which, tortured into motion by the breath of a rising tempest, swayed fitfully to and fro upon the walls, and rustled uneasily about the decorations of the bed, (pg. 406) and set in a dull atmosphere is Roderick and Madeline Usher. Besides its regard of Gothic imagery and horrendous events, the story has a psychological component and symbolism between the house and Roderick Usher.

The story resides in a place of insufferable gloom that sickened the heart and ate away at the soul. This story evokes a feeling of dispirited and dread, along with a dreary environment. The madness of Roderick and Madeline Usher, the progressive deterioration of the house, and the mortifying realization that the power of intense fear. As the narrator approaches the house of Usher, he experiences a sense of dreary among him, which then makes him dread being in such an adverse place. The dreariness of the house increases the unstable mental illness of the already ill Roderick. The narrator himself begins to pace around from the agony from his surroundings.

The narrator in The Fall of the House of Usher was the friend of the main characters Roderick Usher. Roderick lived with his sister in the house and both suffered from mental illness that had ultimately led to their deaths. The house was not actually haunted, but there was a permanent sense of decay about the house that continued up to both of the Ushers. With their mental illnesses, and Madeline Ushers ability to withdraw into a reserved state that would make anyone aware of her condition concluded that the person had died. The setting of the story was the house, which was always described in a way of dark and gloomy. The houses front wall as the narrator describes, resembles a giant face or skull. Roderick's large and luminous eyes are a mirror image of the houses eye-like windows. The Usher House seems so old and fragile that its instability will cause it to collapse. The walls that cover the Usher House seem to be in decay. Roderick's soft and web-like hair resembles the houses cob webs that hangs on the front walls. The physical deterioration of the house symbolized the physical deterioration of Roderick and Madeline Usher. Roderick's artistic creations have a bold fitting with what happens in the Usher House.

Intense fear can cause greater anxiety in a person that will derive them to do irrational things and lose contact with insanity. Roderick Usher believes that the house of Usher dictated his fate and is always conspiring against him. Usher sees what the house is doing to his sister and what he believes it is doing to him, which fills him with great anxiety and despair. Usher becomes agitated, that when Madeline becomes catatonic, he tells the narrator that she has expired and seals her alive inside of a vault in the house. Obviously no sane person would so such a thing to a sibling whom he loves, but nevertheless, the combination of intense fear and an unstable mind lead Roderick to do the terrible deed.

The depreciation of both the physical house of Usher and the people of the Usher House is what the story is really all about. As the physical house of Usher crumbles, so do the family members. The house, as well as Roderick and Madeline, still manage to survive, even though they are wearing away inside like the desolate stones that comprise the house's structure. As we see Roderick crumbling, we sense that an subsequent doom is deceasing upon the entire household, inspiring a feeling of despair. The disturbed characters, and the dreary setting are a realization of how fear can drive one insane.

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How has the Invention of Vaccines Helped the World

Every year nearly ten million people die from infectious diseases. A large percent of them from diseases that are preventable by vaccines. Diseases have taken a toll on America and throughout its history has faced many pandemics, epidemics and outbreaks . We have created vaccines to prevent and minimized the significance and Fatality rates of outbreaks and eradicate some of the most devastating illness known to the human race.

Before Jonas Salk and Thomas Francis created the flu shot in 1938 some twenty years after the Haemophilus Influenza pandemic between 1918 and 1919, claimed approximately six hundred and seventy five thousand American lives and between twenty million to fifty million lives worldwide. During that time Influenza had affected over twenty five percent of the population of the United States of America. Influenza has been one of the most ferocious illnesses in not just America but worldwide and as stated in the book The Great Influenza by John M. Barry The pandemic of 1918 killed more people in 24 months than AIDS killed in 24 years, more in a year than the Black Death killed in a century, according to the book "The Great Influenza."

The adverse affects the average life expectancy of men and women by dropping it by twelve years. During the pandemic influenza was the leading cause of bacterial meningitis young children under five. Meningitis is the inflammation of the membranes surrounding your spinal cord and brain. This vaccine was originally made to protect troops against Influenza during World War II because of the amount of troops that died from it right after and during the first World War. Also in the article by Doyle Rice The virus killed more American troops than died on World War I battlefields. After the vaccine was created, infections dropped by ninety nine percent. The annual rate of influenza related deaths has dropped to thirty six thousand throughout America. Influenza has not been eradicated because it is an ever changing virus. Every flu season is a brand new strain.

Also throughout America in later years to come after Influenza. It is said that on an annual average of three out of every four people were infected with measles and almost all children got it by the age of fifteen. Before John Enders and his colleagues created this vaccine by isolating the disease from an infected students blood, around forty eight thousand people were hospitalized causing hundreds of deaths. Encephalitis caused by measles was reported in over four thousand cases It is estimated that more than twenty million lives were saved because of the development of this vaccine. Although measles has been highly controlled and mostly eradicated in the United States it is still present in other countries and almost all recent cases of measles reported in America is said to be caused by exposure from travelers and immigrants from countries where measles still affects people.

Smallpox was first introduced to America when early European settlers. Smallpox almost eliminated local populations, killing approximately ninety percent of Native Americans. Smallpox was also used as one of the very first forms of biological warfare, settlers gave blankets from from smallpox infected people to the natives and because of lack of exposure to these types of diseases.

The smallpox vaccine was the first successful vaccine. Before the vaccine was created by Edward Jenner in 1796 the fatality rate from the disease was estimated to be around thirty percent and three out of ten people infected with smallpox died. This early form of immunization against smallpox was made by exposing humans to cowpox, which when a person was infected it resembled mild symptoms of smallpox without the the risk of fatality. Another way to attenuate smallpox infections was stated in the book The Reader's Companion To American History written by Eric Foner and John A. Garraty on page 355 Early eighteenth century the technique consisted of transplanting scabs or pus of smallpox victims into open wounds of healthy individuals. These people developed mild symptoms and thereafter immunity. This technique was adopted by European-Americans and helped in the development of inoculation and vaccination as effective preventives.'' Both of these approaches helped people build tolerance against smallpox, and because of development of this vaccine smallpox has been eradicated worldwide and there is no evidence of the disease being naturally occurring and only exists in laboratories.

Mumps is a contagious viral infection that causes swelling to saliva producing glands, and in some cases it can cause encephalitis and permanent deafness in children. Before the mumps vaccine was created by Maurice Hilleman and introduced in 1967 there were approximately one hundred and eighty six thousand cases each year with a fatality rate of one point four percent. Since the vaccine that number has decreased by ninety nine percent with sporadic outbreaks ranging from a couple hundred infections to a couple thousand infections. Because of the fact that mumps is not yet eradicated vaccines only protect against current circulating strains of the mumps virus and doctors advise to get your vaccine renewed during outbreaks. Especially if you live in a heavily populated areas with low vaccination rates. Although this vaccine has not eliminated an ever changing virus infections have been tremendously decreased and have been no recently reported mumps related deaths .

The first clinical case of polio may have been recorded by Jacob Heines in 1789. He had a patient with the same symptoms as the polio disease and with the same involvement with in spinal cord. Polio's first epidemic appeared in 1894 with one hundred thirty two cases that year. Polio was not as widespread as other diseases approximately fourteen cases per hundred thousand, but it was feared just as much among American society because of its paralytic effects in young children and adults affected by the virus. Polio was widely and in the media because during its reign of terror FDR was affected by polio at a young age and was unable to walk correctly or stand for long periods of time. During his presidency in the 1930s and early forties.

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A Degree in Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical engineering is by far the broadest of the engineering disciplines. Which helps explain why it is the most enrolled discipline at Auburn University, with a total of 957 students currently in the college of mechanical engineering (Auburn.edu). So. with it being the most popular branch of engineering at Auburn, and the most broad, one might wonder what mechanical engineers do that is pulling all these future engineers to it. Mechanical engineers, shockingly, work and design to manufacture small components of mechanical machinery, and also that of large systems (What is Mechanical Engineering?). However, mechanical engineers are much more than a car mechanic, what some might think of when they hear mechanical engineering, rather they are much more than that; while mechanical engineers can work on cars and engineers, much like a car mechanic, the bigger role they play is taking an idea or product from the drawing board and bringing it to life for commercial production (What is Mechanical Engineering?).

Systems that mechanical engineers might touch are those that typically deal with: motion, structures, force dynamics, energy and thermal systems, and even material structures (Introduction to Mechanical Engineering at Auburn University); although, mechanical engineers are not limited to those work areas or fields of study. In general, those who obtain a degree in mechanical engineering, work to design machines that produce power. These machines vary, but are not limited to, electric generators, internal and external combustion enginesthis includes the work done by steam or gas-powered turbinesalong with machines that consume power, such as households' appliances and elevators (Mechanical Engineers).

A degree in engineering is very lucrative if you are in it for the money, although that should not be the main reason one might seek a career in engineering. Mechanical engineers can expect to have a starting salary of around 40 thousand dollars, and in due time, they can look at making about 115 thousand dollars a year (Mechanical Engineer Salary). The average person graduating with a degree in mechanical engineering is looking at earning about 78 thousand dollars a year (Mechanical Engineer Salary). While this mechanical engineering is not the highest paid engineering discipline, petroleum engineers is the most lucrative discipline with a starting salary of 75 thousand dollars, they are the second largest branch of engineering that is currently employed in the united states (The Most In-Demand Engineering Jobs). So, if one is looking for a job straight out of college, and using that as a determinant in which discipline they choose, mechanical engineering can make that happen. With there are currently being around 264,000 mechanical engineers employed, as of 2014 (The Most In-Demand Engineering Jobs).

While pursuing a degree in mechanical engineering from Auburn University, there are a multitude of interest and areas of focus inside the major. Areas of focus and interest include, but are not limited, are design and manufacturing, measurements: fluid mechanics, stresses and strains, motion and deformation, controlsGAVLAB, and HVACheating, ventilation, and air conditioning (Intro to Mech). In order to pursue these areas of interest inside Auburn's Mechanical Engineering major, one must make their way to Auburn's Samuel Ginn College of Engineering, and more specifically the Shelby Center for Engineering Technology and Wiggins Hall (Auburn.edu). The Shelby Center and Wiggins hall is where the Mechanical Engineering program at Auburn is centered, and where most of your classes inside the major will be held, not including pre-mechanical. Undergraduate teaching labs and facilitates can be found at Auburn's Advanced Engineering Research Lab (Auburn.edu). The student to faculty ratio of Auburn's Mechanical Engineering program is around 3 to 1, students to faculty (Auburn.edu). There is a total of 50 faculty members in the college, with 33 tenured staff, 31 full time teaching (Auburn.edu). With such a great ratio of students to faculty, once in the college of Mechanical Engineering, students can expect hands on instruction with plenty of opportunities to work with faculty one on one. This allows for faculty to really get to know the undergraduates and thus creating a more personable and encouraging work environment. Being able to work with faculty so closely while studying undergraduate, opens the door for multiple opportunities to conduct research with such faculty members. The research conducted inside the college of Mechanical Engineering is centered around four main technical topics: Thermal Sciences, Design and Manufacturing, System Dynamics and Controls, and Mechanics (Research and Outreach). Students often apply for positions to conduct research with faculty, but with the student to faculty ratio being what it is, faculty can often ask students to help them in their research, since they get to know the students so well in classes.

The curriculum for any discipline of engineering at Auburn is quite tough and rigorous. Before entering the college of one's choose, they must first complete all the perquisite coursesfocused on math and science. In order to enter Auburn's Mechanical Engineering school, one must pass multiple math classes- including all three calculus's, linear differential equations, and topics in linear algebra- and multiple science classesincluding Engineering Physics 1 and 2 and Fundamentals of Chemistry (Curriculum in Mechanical Engineering). Once one has completed all their prerequisite classes, they are then able to move into the college of Mechanical Engineering. Once in the college, they will take classes such as: Statics and Dynamics, Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines, Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics, System Dynamics and Controls, and many more (Curriculum). Undergraduate students are also required to complete a senior design sequence in which four cross-disciplinary teams must work together to design and create vehicles that compete in endurance and speed-based races (Ongoing Student Projects). One senior design team of Auburn's is the SOL solar car team, every year this team participates in cross-country races against students from other schools (Ongoing). The senior design sequence consists of student teams that work to develop industry-sponsored design solutions to problems engineers are facing in the real world today (Samuel Ginn - Mechanical Engineering).

The student engagement in the college of Mechanical Engineering is very high and comes with a multitude of options to choose from. With the mechanical engineering department focusing its research on - Thermal Sciences, Design and Manufacturing, System Dynamics and Controls, and Mechanicsthere are plenty of opportunities for students to engage and help conduct research with its faculty (Research and Outreach). If a student is seeking to conduct research with a faculty member, one can often ask them if there is any research they are working on at the time, or they can go to Faculty Directory on Aubrn.edu for more information about current research performed by Mechanical Engineering faculty (Research and Outreach). There is also the possibility that faculty might ask students directly to help them with research, as mentioned before.

Auburn's Mechanical Engineering major also hosts a number of student teams that compete on the regional, national and international scale (Ongoing). One of these student teams is the SOL solar car team, as mentioned before, as well as two SAE Mini Baja all-terrain vehicle teams. The SAE Mini Baja teams work to design and build an off-road racing car each year, in an attempt to find the perfect balance of strength, speed and endurance (Welcome to Auburn Off Road). Every year the SAE Mini Baja team builds a car, capable of maneuvering over rough terrain and even water, and takes it to competition where their builds are tested for adaptability, skill, stamina, and the engineering ability of the team (Welcome to). These off road vehicles are designed by students, built by students -with help from corporate partners and private citizens- and raced at competitions by students (Welcome to). Auburn's Mechanical Engineering students also have a Formula SAE team, which is much like the SAE Mini Baja team, where students design and build cars similar to that of Formula 1 and IndyCars and race them at competitions nationwide (Auburn University Formula SAE).

The Mechanical Engineering Department at Auburn has many study areas and computer labs opened to students in the college. There are currently eight computer labs that can be used by students, staff and faculty from every engineering discipline (Computer Labs). These computer labs are open all hours of the day, every day of the week that classes are in session. In addition to the eight computer labs, there are 20 department labs that house workstations for students within that particular department (Computer Labs). Students in Auburn's Mechanical Engineering major are advised by Dr. Sushil Bhavnanu (Academic Advising). Prior to entering the college of Mechanical Engineering, students will be advised by Belinda Marable who deals with pre-mechanical engineering students (Meet Our Staff).

Auburn's Mechanical Engineering departments hosts a number of professional societies and clubs inside the major. The professional societies include: American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE), and the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) (Introduction to).

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A Process of Bridge Designing

When designing a bridge there are multiples of different things that make if function correctly. From the actual structure of the bridge to the material that is used. All of these things come into play at some point. There are many different types of structures bridges can be those are Arch, Girder, Truss, and Suspension. There are also many types of materials like steel, wood, and plastics. There are many ways to make good bridges and every company or place that builds a bridge does it with a different reason for that particular structure or material. If we were to build bridges the same way every single time we built a bridge there wouldn't be any because it takes different kinds to fit certain areas. All of the areas I will go over will somewhat lap over each other because with a bridge everything is interdependent meaning that if one side of the bridge fails it is all going to fail because everything is particularly placed.

Joints are also a big factor in bridge design joints are what holds all of the individual pieces together there are multiple different ways to do this. When using cables on a bridge the amount of tension or if using beams the amount of stress that can be put on certain parts is critical. If there is too much tension of stress that can cause bridges to collapse. The five stages of the design process can also help to make sure bridges are built with precision and that it will hold what it is supposed to. Bridges are used thousands and thousands of times a day all over the world. One reason bridges are able to hold so much weight and their structure designs only have gotten better over the years because of benchmarking company's use existing bridge designs to then make their bridges even stronger and are able to use even more amazing structures because everyone has a different way of building bridges all over the world.

What kind of structure makes a good bridge. There are many different types of structures bridges can be those are Arch, Girder, Truss, and Suspension. Arched bridges have a curved shape to them. These bridges are very durable and can hold a lot of weight. They are a limited length bridge making them harder to build in large places without more anchor points. Girder bridges have the roads on top of them and are supported by columns or girders giving them the name. Truss bridges are made of different connected elements to for triangular shapes. Suspension bridges have cables ran to the top of suspenders therefore giving the road below extra support using its own structure.

All of these bridges can be made of different materials some are made of concrete like girder bridges. But others are usually made of steel like arch, truss, and suspension giving it more ability to support itself in different shapes. Over passes and most railway and city highways are made with the girder structure. While the Brooklyn Bridge and the Manhattan bridge use the suspension structure. These bridges are lightweight and strong meaning they can handle a lot of weight and stretch a lot further than the regular bridge. The disadvantage of this bridge is that they are expensive to build and move in the wind which can be a problem when people pass over them thinking the bridge might fall or not be sturdy. Permanent bridge structures are usually made out of steel with concrete anchoring the ends and center points they are maintained at a high level so that they have the ability to last a long time.

Through Bridges have the structure above formation level while semi-through bridges have the super structure only partly above the formation level. There are also structured bridges on flood level submersible bridge structures make it able that water can go over the bridge on unimportant roads and they are low cost. Out of all of these bridge structures suspension bridges are the best structure because of their ability to hold a lot of weight. That's why they are some of the most used structures for large bridges like the Manhattan. The strength of the structure also depends on the quality of the material being used if you are using cheap steel then your bridge might be prone to stress cracks in the steel especially if it is being used in a very cold environment. All of this can be solved by using the steps in the design process when brainstorming you could make your bridge with steel and a truss or suspension structure giving it great strength.

There are hundreds of different kinds of bonding fastening and joining methods used on bridges. This is what the bridge depends on most for its support if the bridge can't stay together properly then it's not a bridge. One major way to hold wood bridges together or anything wood are screws they come in different lengths and sizes to hold all your pieces together. Soldering is an option used on smaller pieces of metal mostly in electronics and circuit boards. Most of the bridges use welds when needing to join two or more pieces of steel together. But there are other choices like riveting which is taking two pieces of metal and punching through them and adding a metal fastener, but this is usually used on sheet metal and would be difficult for large pieces of steel. On a truss bridge the pieces push against each other to add support these pieces of steel would be welded together. On a smaller scale of bridge that we are building we will be using glue. There are multiple different types of glue.

White craft clue being the most common found in school classrooms and is somewhat flexible. Wood glue is more rigid and a stiffer hold than craft glue but isn't as flexible. The next glue is super glue, this glue has very strong adhesive properties and works good for Bolsa wood projects. Next is hot glue this is a better version of the white craft glue sets up strong and holds good strength. There are many more glues but those are the most used for small projects and shows which you should use for what you need. Out of all these methods superglue and got glue will work best for our project because they have the strong adhesive abilities along with the strength needed to hold everything together.

Bridges come in all shapes and sizes longer bridges are harder to handle because it relies on more man power and more mechanical power. On bridges that are 50 to 250 meters the Balanced cantilever method. Which is building the bridges in segments and casting it in place. This is great on cable-stayed bridges because they are attached with strong piers that are usually concrete. Cast-in-situ bridge construction is a flexible method where shapes that are irregular or are unusual can be constructed. These pieces are made at a different place then installed once they are in the exact place they are meant to be in. Turning large complex bridges into something that can be handled with less mechanical and man power. Precast construction methods are pre made parts that are then assembled once they are at the location.

A lot like cast-in-situ method these parts are usually beams, decks, or segmental decks. These are set in place by a crane once transported many parts are only small sections of a much larger piece. Span by Span method of construction is where decks are began at one point and piece by piece are laid throughout making one whole bridge. This is the most economically beneficial method and is used all over the world. This method is also safer and has had many advancements in the way they are constructed. The Incremental Launching Method of construction is for continued segments of bridges that are usually concrete or steel. These bridges are longer than 250 meters and can be even longer than that. The bridge is built section by section putting pressure on each anchor point making this a very strong design. There are many things that can affect a bridge like the scale, nature of the soil and also local weather. These can make all the difference by making sure the anchor points are all strong. If the soil erodes the bridge could collapse causing major issues. Beam bridges are a very simple design two vertical beams are put into the ground while one horizontal beam is then put on top. The only issue with a bridge like this is it must be a short bridge because force is applied to the middle of the horizontal beam causing tension. They are in expensive and easy to build but must only be built in short segments.

The super structure of a bridge is what holds it all together. It is your trusses for your truss bridges or girder for girder bridges. The super structure of the bridge all begins with what bridge you are wanting to design. The superstructure is what holds all of the weight that will be crossing over it. The deck of the bridge is what is used for the road. This can be concrete or wood whatever the preferred material being used is. Most of the larger bridges are made with concrete decks because they are able to hold more weight over longer periods of time. The decks are supported by large beams which are usually anchored into the piers. Bearings are a large part of a bridges structure they help evenly disperse the load through the bridges anchor points or piers. The bearings help the bridge move horizontality with the way the decks are facing giving for a smoother structure. The type of bearing depends on multiple things like weight, geometry, and tolerances. Piers are the structures that hold the bridge up they are vertical to the bridge usually places either under or in between the decks supporting the load above them. Piers are made from steel with concrete surrounding into the soil giving it added structural support. The type of pier depends on structural connectivity, and the shape of the section. The structural connectivity of the pier is labeled as monolithic or cantilevered. When talking about shape they are labeled as hexagonal, hollow, solid, round , octagonal or, rectangular. Abutments control the earth behind the bridges structure. Usually placed under the oncoming point of the bridge. Wingwalls are extensions of the abutments and also help retain the earth coming from beneath the bridge. Guardrails and hand rails are added to bridges to help from cars driving off the side or for walk ways over the bridge for people to grab.

These are all ways of different structures and designs and ways to build bridges when bringing this into a wooden model bridge isn't much harder the same designs can be used. From these designs a truss bridge will be best for this project. With each individual piece pushing against the other force helps the bridge stay strong. The pros of working with balsa wood on this project is that its flexible and can support a bit of weight for being wood. This will help with the force that is applied to the top. Fishing sting can also be applied to the bridge adding a suspension like structure. This also supports the down force by pulling down on the vertical supports adding a helping force. With having multiple piers in this case will help the bridge from collapsing from the middle this force will be absorbed by the piers. Using the different types of bridge structures and designs will add extra support to the bridge. For joining and bonding methods wood glue will be the best for the deck because it is very strong and the pieces won't break from each other.

Using the craft glue for points that have great forces helps the flexibility of the bridge giving added support to the forces. If we were able to use metal in this project the strengths of the bridge could be much better if we used steel the joints could be welded together. The bridge could also have even more options of support like cables. if we were to use a stacking pattern of balsa wood sticks for the deck that would be greater support because the forces of the stacked pieces would push outwards towards the force that is applied. The cons of using balsa wood are also that it is inconsistent in density which can lead to the bridge breaking in certain places just because of the density of the wood. Bass wood could be a better alternative to balsa wood because it is heavy, and is also stronger and does better with tests of force. Lateral bracing is also a great way to keep the bridge from twisting because of the properties of balsa wood it is flexible which is a pro and a con in itself. With shorter pieces used in the construction of the bridge can handle more applied force because it is a shorter piece and the weight can be more evenly distributed without sagging. The more triangles that can be used in the structure will be better because they are able to bear more weight. Triangles also hold their shape better than squares because they only have 3 supporting points that push on each other.

The truss bridge structure also is great for a project like this because it is a short bridge and a simple design doing what it's supposed to, hold force that is applied to the top. Balsa wood is also different in different climates. If the wood is wet it is going to be more flexible but the glue might not stick. If the wood is dry it is more sturdy but is also prone to cracking under force. Building different bridges and testing them will also help find the best design and strengths. Stage four of the design process uses prototypes to find which one best fits what you are designing also eliminating failures when the final product is made. If we were to make our bridge a beam bridge it would not support the weight as much as another bridge because all the force is applied to the center causing breaking in the middle. Hot glue will also help hold all of the deck pieces together and the piers adding flexibility in the joints when the force is applied. All of this is applied to everyday bridges when one piece is pushing the other it is supporting the force above it which are usually cars or people walking over the top of them. The structure of these bridges haven't changed a lot over time because these structures support the most weight. Bridges that have irregular shapes or are bent are usually more for aesthetic purposes meaning that those bridges don't

usually carry a lot of weight over the top of them this would be a bad design to use in our project because they have no functional purpose. Aesthetics have no use in function therefore don't have a big place in the design of bridges that need to function more than they need to look good. After looking at everyone's designs taking the strongest points from each will help our bridge be the strongest. In stage two of the design process concepts and ideas are thrown out by taking the strongest parts of each of these concepts or ideas you can find what makes the strongest bridge.

When building the supports or anchors for the wooden bridge they should be made out of short pieces to keep force applied to all parts as should the bridge. With force applied to all parts it is going to handle more weight over all. If the bridge can be supported in the middle it will have the best chance of not breaking because that is where most of the force will be applied. Super glue will not be a good use in this project because it can break easily when force is applied to the joint. A better alternative to this would be using wood glue. The popsicle sticks are strong and should be used for the deck as support to the force because they are stronger than the balsa wood. If the fishing line is twisted together it can be used as cable for suspending which helps take away some of the pressure that is also coming from the ends of the bridge. This is used on bridges like the Manhattan bridge because it is a long segment of bridge and has a lot of everyday traffic and force that is applied. It is also flexible and helps with strong winds. End posts won't really help in this project because the force is being applied to the center of the bridge if the force was being applied evenly throughout the whole bridge then this would be a good way to add support.

This helps in other bridges that are used for everyday purposes because cars are going from one end to the other when the force is applied to the center you don't get the same effect and the results will not be the same. Having a good base structure before adding the deck because this will be the main structure that takes the force. The overall design of the bridge should have a truss design on the side using triangle to keep the force equal through the bridge. There should be a lateral brace or anchoring point in the middle so that the applied force isn't just flat wood. This is taking the basic design aspects of normal truss bridges and arch bridges. Keeping all of the pieces shorter will help by not snapping the pieces and keeping the overall length shorter. There should be three anchoring points or more throughout the bridge so that there are multiple points supporting the bridge and not just all the force on one point. Overall the bridge should be able to hold more than the minimum force of 30lbs. the weight of the bridge should also be very low if only using glue in the necessary joints and not using excess wood where it will not help the force. If there were one material that would be better to do this project with I believe it would be steel because it has better strength properties and shows what kinds of stress that real bridges go through with the forces of everyday wear. There would also be more ways of joining the materials other than glue because most glues used on projects do not reflect the glues or other bonding or joining methods in actual bridge design.

After the research of different joining and bonding methods and different types of structures to use for bridges. Truss and arch bridges because they can hold an ideal amount of weight. These are also basic bridge designs that have been perfected thought-out the years. These designs have the best possible outcome of strength to weight ratio. Using the triangles on the side as trusses and multiple lateral braces and anchor points we will be able to disperse the force throughout the whole bridge. Using the popsicle sticks as the deck of the bridge there will also be more surface area for force to be dispersed. Also using the hot glue and the wood glue will give us the best joining and bonding methods with the hot glue flexibility and the strength of the wood glue for the lateral bracing. By not using super glue the bridge will be less prone to cracking at the joints with the force applied. By possibly using the fishing line we can have suspension to the major points of force keeping these points from snapping with the applied force. If all of these techniques are used in the design process then the bridge will be successful if multiple different designs are not used and the wrong structure and bonding methods are used then the bridge will be unsuccessful. These same steps are followed with everyday bridges multiple different designs are researched and hand-picked to fit the project guidelines If the steps aren't followed then the same outcome will show. Testing of a mock bridge will also help find spots of failure before the final product is tested.

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The Life and Ideas of Socrates

The unexamined life is not worth living for the human being. These words, spoken by one of the most influential men to ever live, have resounded throughout millennia as the basis for all philosophical thought. Socrates' life played a major role in human history as it has influenced everyone from Plato, to Aristotle, and even Alexander the Great, showing its importance for us as humans living in an ever-changing world. The life of Socrates fluctuated and evolved constantly, as his early years consisted mainly of education and early philosophical thought, but as he grew in wisdom and stature he found himself fighting in multiple battles during the Peloponnesian wars and saving the lives of powerful men. Sadly, his philosophical ideas were not widely accepted and his steadfastness to his own ideas eventually led to his execution. Socrates was born in Athens during the year 469 B.C. to Sophroniscus and Phaenarate, his father and mother respectively. The tribe his family associated with was Antiochis, while their Deme, or their district, was Alopece. Five days after his birth, Socrates' father followed the sacred tradition of carrying him around the hearth and accepting him into the family, naming him on the tenth day. Following his naming, Socrates was presented to his phratry and socialized into Athenian institutions necessary for the common male (Nails 09). As Socrates grew, he became more and more eager for schooling and was eventually incorporated into the sophisticated schooling system of Athens. During Socrates' childhood, literacy became more widespread and education was becoming a necessity for a growing percentage of the Athenian population. Because of this, Sophroniscus ensured his son would receive an education on par with what was expected at the time, showing that Socrates' upbringing was not deprived nor was it especially luscious. At a young age, Socrates was already purchasing the scrolls of Anaxagoras and educating himself in the ways of philosophical thought, planting the seeds of wisdom that would grow and influence generations to come. In his 18th year, Socrates' father put him through the ceremony of dokimasia, where he would be examined and entered onto the citizens' role. This made Socrates eligible for tasks of the Athenian government, meaning he needed to spend two years in compulsory military training. Unfortunately, soon after Socrates came of age, his father died, leaving Phaenarete (his mother) as his only legal guardian. Between this time and his 30th year, Socrates discussed philosophy with influential teachers of the time and trained himself in a trade in preparation for his coming eligibility for public office (Nails 09). Socrates' early years played a large part in the molding of the rest of his life, as his father's death played a profound effect on his moral development and his introduction to philosophy at such a young age allowed him to be deeply rooted and knowledgeable in it at just 19. After Socrates completed his mandatory military training, he was sent to Potidaea in 432 with Alcibiades to put down a revolt as a foot soldier. Alcibiades, a commander during the Peloponnesian wars, was wounded and dying on the battlefield before being rescued by Socrates, who saved his life, armor, and honor. In the year 429, during a short stint in Athens between two battles, Socrates was accused by a comic playwright of aiding Euripides in writing his tragedies, a false accusation that harmed Socrates' reputation and would be repeated twice more. After travelling around the Balkan Peninsula once more to fight against revolts, the Greeks' luck began to dry up and they were defeated in 424 during the Battle of Delium. Although there were many casualties, Socrates was still honored for his heroism in battle and was praised once again by his commander Alcibiades. Unfortunately, the Athenians were defeated again at the Battle of Amphipolis in 422 and Socrates was of a small group that returned. This would be the last time Socrates would fight in any war (Nails 10). After concluding his military career, Socrates began to teach the youths of Athens in the ways of philosophical thought and was held in high regards among them, yet he remained essentially anonymous from those who would be his peers. Unfortunately, any trace of this anonymity that was left in 423 was eliminated by the popularity he gained from being portrayed in Aristophanes' Clouds. Being placed in the spotlight was not something Socrates was used to, so this event ultimately resulted in the unrest that led to his execution. After the war time that followed 423, Socrates continued his talks on erotic love with the youths of Athens (these inspired Plato's Symposium) and eventually married Xanthippe, who soon after bore their first son Lamprocles. In the following years, they had another child named after Socrates' father, Sophroniscus. Following his family's development, a newly erected wrestling school became the setting for Socrates' examinations of the nature of friendship with a group of adolescents who associated with Plato and his older brothers. This association would soon be damaged as Aristophanes took another stab at Socrates' reputation, stating, It's no longer fashionable to associate with Socrates, and His hairsplitting twaddle ignores the craft of the tragedians! (Nails 12). This unrest eventually led to accusations of irreverence and Socrates was eventually found guilty and executed. In his final hours, Socrates remained happy and energetic, drinking the Athenians' poison and dying with his honor. Although Socrates himself never wrote down a word of his ideas and philosophies, his students (most notable of whom was Plato) ensured that the vast majority of his works were immortalized to ensure the world would see his genius. Because of this, we can today observe Socrates' ideas of the Socratic Method and the Socratic Paradox, two key aspects of the world of metaphysical thought. The Socratic Paradox, or the idea that the only thing man can know is that they know nothing, was uncovered by Socrates in a way one would only suspect from the iconic thinker. According to The Story of Philosophy by Bryan Magee, When the oracle at Delphi declared him to be the wisest of men, he thought this could mean only that he alone knew that he did not know anything, (Magee 20). Socrates uses this simple declaration from a fraudulent fortune teller to discover one of the most profound paradoxes of philosophy while in the process stemming from it the Socratic Method. The Socratic Method is the most popular of Socrates' main philosophies as it plays a part in almost any philosopher's ideological journey, and involves asking a series of questions to reach, what most would hope, an end (although this was rarely attained, as Socratic questioning commonly becomes circular). Around ancient Athens, Socrates would question the legitimacy of fundamental concepts of livelihood and, according to the course text, challenge a person who thought they knew the answer, and then subject that answer to examination by asking the person a series of searching questions about it, (Magee 21). This questioning could delegitimize ideas thought to be the most concrete, as evidenced by the hatred produced from Socrates' questioning of Greek gods and eventual charges of irreverence. This invalidation of ideas would force both observers and those questioned to, according to Magee, retract [their] answer, or at least qualify it although that interlocuter ““ had thought they knew what, let us say, courage was, actually they did not, (Magee 21). By exposing the great ignorance of the Athenians in this way, Socrates effectively opened the eyes of thousands of youths who would eventually carry on this way of thought, whether they be his students or simply avid listeners. These ideas formulated by Socrates have resounded throughout millennia and have an undoubtedly profound effect on today's society. Socrates' influence has stretched from his lifetime to today, and his ideas are still applied in modern thought and philosophy. By asking the deep-seated questions of life, Socrates was able to make humans really contemplate the meaning of their existence like never before and encourage a new way of thinking on a subject scrutinized since the beginning of human existence. The implication these ideas hold for us today is that we must accept the reality that there is no answer to the question, What is the meaning of life? but there are rationalizations for our existence. By asking, What makes things good? What is virtue? What is love? we can discover, through the Socratic method, why we're here. Interestingly enough, the answer for these questions changes from person to person, each with their own respective question that carries them on to the next, eventually resulting in the eventual realization that all truths are subjective except one, that it is impossible for us to know anything definitely. Socrates' inspiration throughout thousands of years has played a profound effect on human history and has molded cultures around the world for the better. In the constantly evolving world in which we live, having a grasp on the meaning of our existence grows in importance every day as daily trials become greater and more difficult to deal with. Although Socrates life ended before the modern calendar even began, his influence has remained and his ideologies have been immortalized by those who stood alongside him.

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Dante and Christian Beliefs of the Afterlife

Inferno is the first part of Dante Alighieri's poem, Divine Comedy, which tells of a journey of Dante through hell, purgatory, and heaven guided by the ancient Roman poet Virgil. Inferno is about the experiences Dante faced on his journey of the soul towards God as he travels the nine circles of hell to reach heaven. In the poem, hell is depicted as the realm for those who have disobeyed the spiritual values for cruel and violent actions against fellow human beings. Through punishments, the poem serves an allegorical purpose and depicts how one suffers from committing such sins to redemption and eventually salvation. Allegory poems depict both the literal and symbolic meaning. Dante uses allegory in the poem and describes his struggles through the dark forest to salvation, and uses poetic justice in the form of contemporary, historical and mythological figures. The allegory used in the poem depicts the struggles a man goes through in his journey for redemption through Purgatorio and eventually to salvation through Paradiso. In Canto I, there are various Christian beliefs that demonstrate the consequences the humankind faces after committing sin. Dante describes how he finds himself confused in a dark forest as a result of his sins. The poem reads in the midway of this our mortal life; I found me in a gloomy wood, astray/Gone from the path direct. Dante was 35 years old when he wrote this poem, and he illustrates this by saying that midway through his life because most readings of the book of Psalms depict the life span of human kind to be 70 years old. He finds himself in a dark forest because he has gone astray from salvation and this is the punishment for doing so. The poem does not illustrate whether the forest is real or just another example of the allegorical and symbolic forest. Dante illustrates how confused he is because he has strayed from the right path of life and now the punishment is so harsh on him, that forest, how robust and rough its growth/ which to remember only my dismay/ renews, in bitterness not far from death. He regrets the life he has been living and now seeks redemption. Hope and faith are restored on him when he sees a mountain with light shining above it and hopes he can climb the mountain for redemption; he states in the poem that, I looked up and saw its shoulders brightened with the rays of that sun that leads men rightly on every road. However, as he tries to climb the mountain, he first sees a leopard leaping in front of him, but determined to climb the mountain, he continues trying, and then sees a lion coming on his path followed by a wolf, and, behold, almost at the start of the slope, a light, swift leopard with spotted coat. It would not turn from before my face, and so obstructed my path, that I often turned, in order to return. The three animals represent the three sins of violence and animosity, lack of self-control and finally, fraud and malice. These three animals make him turn around to the dark forest and stops climbing the mountain. Dante is saved by the Roman poet Virgil from this misery. In Canto II, Dante meets Virgil after losing hope and hopes that he will be his savior in his journey, and he states, Have pity on me, whoever you are, whether a man, in truth, or a shadow. Virgil explains how he has been sent by Beatrice, the girl that Dante loves and deems to be an angel from heaven, who represents divine love to come rescue him. Symbols of compassion (Virgin Mary), grace (Saint Lucia) and contemplative life (Rachel) are depicted in this Canto. Dante follows Virgil in the journey to the underworld. In Canto III, Dante passes through the gates of hell with a phrase that implies all hope should be abandoned forsake all hope, all you that enter here. Here, Dante meets the souls of those who never took sides in life but were only concerned with themselves. They are continually stung by wasps and hornets, and this symbolizes the sting of their guilty conscience from their sin. These people live miserable lives as they are cast out by Heaven and denied entry by Hell and Dante asks, Master, what is this I hear, and what race are these, that seem so overcome by suffering?. Dante and Virgil then meet Charon, the Hell's boatman who transports the dead into the underworld, and is very hesitant to take the living into the underworld, Woe to you, wicked spirits! Never hope to see heaven: I come to carry you to the other shore, into eternal darkness, into fire and ice. And you, who are there, a living spirit, depart from those who are dead. Virgil guides Dante through the nine circles of Hell. The circles represent the wickedness of human beings on earth and how Satan is forever held in bondage of suffering. The sinners for each circle face punishments for their crime in what he refers to as poetic justice. The first circle is the limbo where Virgil resides and represents the people who are unbaptized and do not recognize the existence of Christ. These people represent that group that did not sin but rather refused the existence of Christ, they are the non-Christians adults and the unbaptized babies, they had no sin, yet, though they have worth, it is not sufficient, because they were not baptized, and baptism is the gateway to the faith that you believe in. They are punished by living in a deficient form of heaven for their ignorance of God, however, just like Noah, Moses, Abraham, David among others was saved from the limbo, they too can be saved. The second circle is the circle of lust, where those who are overcome by lust and sexual love are punished by the violent hellish storm that never stops. Lust in this circle led to the sins of adultery, and for cases such as Dido and Cleopatra, it led to a violent death. The third circle represents those who are swayed by voracious appetite and commit the crime of gluttony. They are punished by the constant icy rain which makes them grovel in the mad. The fourth circle represents the greedy people in society who are swayed by the material greed. They are punished by jousting heavy weights in their chests. Dante in his poem illustrates that, here, too, I saw a nation of lost souls/ far more than were above: they strained their chests against enormous weights, and with mad howls rolled them at one another. The fifth circle depicts the wrath faced by the wrathful and the sullen. The wrathful are forced to fight each eternally on the surface of the river while the sullen lay is gurgling under the river. Here, the poem allegorically reveals the punishment for sins that neither philosophy nor the nature of human kind can understand and it states in part, Now, son, see the souls of those overcome by anger, and also, I want you to know, in truth, there are people under the water, who sigh, and make it bubble on the surface, as your eye can see whichever way it turns. The sixth circle is for the heretics who claim that the soul died with the body and failed to believe in God and the afterlife and they are punished in the flaming tombs. They are locked in the burning tombs since they did not believe in Hell. The seventh circle is for violence, O blind desires, evil and foolish, which so goad us in our brief life, and then, in the eternal one, ruin us so bitterly, and it is divided into three sections. First, violence against neighbors that includes the war makers, murders and the tyrants and are punished by being immersed in a river of boiling blood and fire symbolizing the blood they took from their neighbors. The second section of this circle is the violence against self which includes people who committed suicide or even attempted to commit suicide, and they are punished by transforming their souls into gnarled thorny trees fed by birds or the Harpies that have women faces. The last section is for violence against God, art, and nature and includes the blasphemous and the sodomites where they are punished by the burning sand and hot flames falling from the sky. This symbolizes how those who go against the will of God never find peace and live in a very uncomfortable life. The eighth circle is that which punishes those who committed fraud and Dante describes it as the place in Hell. They include the flatterers, simonists, seducers, sorcerers corrupt politicians thieves, hypocrites, counselors of fraud, falsifiers among others and each of them were severely punished. Panderers and seducers are forced to march eternally in opposite directions just as they used seduction to force others to incline to their will. Flatterers who used their language to commit fraud are plunged in excrement, and he quotes one them saying, the flatteries, of which my tongue never wearied, have brought me down to this. Simonists represent the group that bribed for power in the Catholic Churches and are punished by being placed upside down in holes. The sorcerers and false prophets have their heads twisted so that they cannot see what is in front of them because of their false prophecies of the future. The corrupt politicians were placed in sticky pitches that represented their dirty and corrupt deals. The thieves are constantly attacked by lizards and snakes, and their human identity keeps undergoing various transformations and always subject to theft. The sowers of discord have their bodies torn apart as they divided people by their division among people while the fraudulent councilors are entrenched in their individual pyres. The falsifiers who consist of the impersonators and counterfeiters have their bodies and minds rotting in diseases. The last circle represents those who were punished for treachery. From the first circle Limbo to the last circle treachery, Dante documents the punishments of sinners from all walks of life, either as people in authority such as politicians to the very low class in society. These circles represent the seven deadly sins committed by human kind. The punishment depicted in these circles fits the sins committed, and the poem illustrates the realm of Satan and the Christian perception of sin. Through the use of allegory, contemporary, historical and mythological figures and poetic justice, Dante impacts hugely on the Christian beliefs of the afterlife and the live in hell. Through imagery of the poem, Dante depicts a very horrifying life one has to face for living a sinful life. The use of the first person narrator in the Inferno helps the reader associate with the struggles of a man in his journey for salvation and how it feels to go through the midlife crisis. Dante's Inferno also shows how the society views Satan as being inferior to God and how the decisions we make in life determine our fate in the afterlife, for instance, repentance and acknowledgement of God by following His will will guarantee us salvation in the afterlife while the sinful life we lead will lead us straight to the wrath of hell. Dante also goes into detail by differentiating the levels of sin by illustrating the different types of punishment described in each circle for the different sins committed. The poem describes the fundamental religious beliefs the society today deals with and the concept of punishment. Hope for salvation is displayed by the fact that Dante sees the light at the end of his journey and understands his own heart and what it takes to be saved from the sinful life.

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Dante and Virgil’s Journey

Inferno opens on the evening of fine Friday within the year 1300. Traveling thru a dark wood, Dante Alighieri has lost his course and now wanders fearfully through the forest. The sun shines down on a mountain above him, and he attempts to climb up to it but finds his way blocked via three beasts”a leopard, a lion, and a she-wolf. Frightened and helpless, Dante returns to the darkish wood. Here he encounters the ghost of Virgil, the gorgeous Roman poet, who has come to information Dante again to his path, to the top of the mountain. Virgil says that their path will take them through Hell and that they will eventually attain Heaven, the place Dante's cherished Beatrice awaits. He provides that it used to be Beatrice, alongside with two different holy women, who, seeing Dante misplaced in the wood, sent Virgil to information him.

Virgil leads Dante through the gates of Hell, marked via the haunting inscription abandon all hope, you who enter here (III.7). They enter the outlying location of Hell, the Ante-Inferno, the place the souls who in existence may want to now not commit to either properly or evil now ought to run in a futile chase after a clean banner, day after day, whilst hornets chunk them and worms lap their blood. Dante witnesses their struggling with repugnance and pity. The ferryman Charon then takes him and his information across the river Acheron, the real border of Hell. The First Circle of Hell, Limbo, homes pagans, such as Virgil and many of the other tremendous writers and poets of antiquity, who died besides understanding of Christ. After meeting Horace, Ovid, and Lucan, Dante keeps on into the Second Circle of Hell, which is reserved for the sin of Lust. At the border of the Second Circle, the monster Minos lurks, giving condemned souls to their punishments. He curls his tail around himself a certain quantity of times, indicating the number of the circle to which the soul ought to go. Inside the Second Circle, Dante watches as the souls of the Lustful swirl about in a horrible storm; Dante meets Francesca, who tells him the story of her doomed love affair with Paolo da Rimini, her husband's brother; the relationship has landed each in Hell.

In the Third Circle of Hell, the Gluttonous should lie in mud and suffer a rain of grime and excrement. In the Fourth Circle, the Avaricious and the Prodigal are made to cost at one some other with massive boulders. The Fifth Circle of Hell contains the river Styx, a swampy, fetid cesspool in which the Wrathful spend eternity struggling with one another; the Sullen lie sure below the Styx's waters, choking on the mud. Dante glimpses Filippo Argenti, a former political enemy of his, and watches in pride as different souls tear the man to pieces.

Virgil and Dante subsequent proceed to the partitions of the city of Dis, a town contained inside the large area of Hell. The demons who protect the gates refuse to open them for Virgil, and an angelic messenger arrives from Heaven to pressure the gates open before Dante. The sixth circle of hell is where you'll find Heretics, there Dante runs into Farinata a political leader. A deep valley leads into the First Ring of the Seventh Circle of Hell, the place those who have been violent toward others spend eternity in a river of boiling blood. Virgil and Dante meet a crew of Centaurs, creatures who are half man, half horse. One of them, Nessus, takes them into the Second Ring of the Seventh Circle of Hell, where they come upon those who were violent towards themselves (the Suicides). These souls have to endure eternity in the structure of trees. Dante there speaks with Pier della Vigna. Going deeper into the Seventh Circle of Hell, the vacationers discover these who had been violent toward God (the Blasphemers); Dante meets his historic patron, Brunetto Latini, taking walks among the souls of those who have been violent towards Nature (the Sodomites) on a wasteland of burning sand. They additionally come across the Usurers, those who have been violent toward Art.

The monster Geryon transports Virgil and Dante across a outstanding abyss to the Eighth Circle of Hell, acknowledged as Malebolge, or evil pockets (or pouches); the term refers to the circle's division into quite a number pockets separated by means of gorgeous folds of earth. In the First Pouch, the Panderers and the Seducers obtain lashings from whips; in the second, the Flatterers need to lie in a river of human feces. The Simoniacs in the Third Pouch grasp upside down in baptismal fonts whilst their toes burn with fire. In the Fourth Pouch are the Astrologists or Diviners, pressured to stroll with their heads on backward, a sight that moves Dante to terrific pity. In the Fifth Pouch, the Barrators (those who popular bribes) steep in pitch while demons tear them apart. The Hypocrites in the Sixth Pouch need to continuously stroll in circles, sporting heavy robes made of lead. Caiphas, the priest who proven Jesus' loss of life sentence, lies crucified on the ground; the other sinners tread on him as they walk. In the horrifying Seventh Pouch, the Thieves sit trapped in a pit of vipers, becoming vipers themselves when bitten; to regain their form, they should bite some other thief in turn.

In the Eighth Pouch of the Eighth Circle of Hell, Dante speaks to Ulysses, the outstanding hero of Homer's epics, now doomed to an eternity among those guilty of Spiritual Theft (the False Counselors) for his position in executing the ruse of the Trojan Horse. In the Ninth Pouch, the souls of Sowers of Scandal and Schism walk in a circle, constantly stricken with the aid of wounds that open and close repeatedly. In the Tenth Pouch, the Falsifiers suffer from a horrible plague and diseases.

Virgil and Dante proceed to the Ninth Circle of Hell via the Giants' Well, which leads to a massive drop to Cocytus, a fantastic frozen lake. The large Antaeus picks Virgil and Dante up and units them down at the backside of the well, in the lowest location of Hell. In Caina, the First Ring of the Ninth Circle of Hell, those who betrayed their kinfolk stand frozen up to their necks in the lake's ice. In Antenora, the Second Ring, those who betrayed their usa and party stand frozen up to their heads; right here Dante meets Count Ugolino, who spends eternity gnawing on the head of the man who imprisoned him in life. In Ptolomea, the Third Ring, these who betrayed their visitors spend eternity mendacity on their backs in the frozen lake, their tears making blocks of ice over their eyes. Dante subsequent follows Virgil into Judecca, the Fourth Ring of the Ninth Circle of Hell and the lowest depth. Here, these who betrayed their benefactors spend eternity in whole icy submersion.

A huge, mist-shrouded form lurks ahead, and Dante procedures it. It is the three-headed giant Lucifer, plunged waist-deep into the ice. His physique pierces the middle of the Earth, where he fell when God hurled him down from Heaven. Each of Lucifer's mouths chews one of history's three biggest sinners: Judas, the betrayer of Christ, and Cassius and Brutus, the betrayers of Julius Caesar. Virgil leads Dante on a climb down Lucifer's massive form, maintaining on to his frozen tufts of hair. Eventually, the poets reach the Lethe, the river of forgetfulness, and journey from there out of Hell and back onto Earth. They emerge from Hell on Easter morning, just earlier than sunrise.

Dante and Virgil's journey taught us that there is a lot to strive for. They sought out adventure, and they went and got it. Dante and Virgil started their journey as guide and teacher, respectively, and turned it to be a very successful combination. Dante ended up eventually dying of Malaria. However, his long lasting legacy.

Citation Page

Dante: The Divine Comedy. Poetry in Translation, www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Italian/DantnotesInf.php.
The Divine Comedy. Philosophy of Megaten Wiki, philosophy-of-megaten.wikia.com/wiki/The_Divine_Comedy.
Inferno (Dante). Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Nov. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferno_(Dante).

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Homosexuality in the Fall of the House of Usher

Edgar Allen Poe's famous short story The Fall of the House of Usher is known for pitting the rational against the irrational. Many interpretations of this piece see the Narrator as a representation of saneness that is tempted and eventually nearly killed due to his curiosity of insanity, embodied by Roderick Usher. However, The Fall of the House of Usher has a much more specific theme than just rational vs. irrational; this story is speaking to the perceived irrationality, or abnormality, of homosexuality and the inability to have control over sexuality. Allusions to homosexuality are presented multiple times throughout the text. Some examples of this are: the unusual closeness of Roderick Usher and Narrator, the leisure activities of Roderick and Narrator, and the physical burial of the feminine. The fact that homosexuality was viewed as a mental disorder during the time setting of the story, as well as when Poe was writing, along with these pieces of evidence create a clear connection between the homosexuality and The Fall of the House of Usher. The intimacy of Roderick and the Narrator's relationship goes far beyond that of friendship. The Fall of the House of Usher begins with the Narrator dropping everything to attend to a man, Roderick Usher that he hasn't seen or heard from in multiple years. He does this because of a letter expressing Roderick's earnest desire (Poe, 5) to see him. This seems a bit extreme of a long lost childhood friend however, it seems believable for long lost lovers. The text even describes the previous friendship as intimate (5), a term often associated with the physical aspects of a romantic relationships. From the beginning of the narrative, readers can see that there is something deeper than friendship between Roderick Usher and Narrator. The romantic nature of these men's relationship is intensified upon Narrator's arrival at the House of Usher. As the two men see each other for the first time, Narrator details the vivacious warmth (7) with which he was greeted before giving readers an in-depth analysis of Roderick's once remarkable (7) face. First, he notes Roderick's eyes as luminous beyond comparison (7), which is interesting because eyes are often times referred to as a window to the soul. It is no coincidence that this sounds a lot more romantic than it does friendly. Next, he addresses Roderick's lips, the body part used for kissingromantic, physical affectionas having a beautiful curve to them (7). Narrator goes on to describe Roderick's finely-molded and prominent chin and jawline (7). Prominent chins tend to be associated with masculinity and having a defined jawline is a troupe of rugged male love interests. The great detail in which Narrator describes the aesthetically pleasing nature of Roderick's chin suggests his physical attraction to the male form. However, after this extremely intensive analysis of Roderick's unforgettable face, readers are told that this is no longer what Roderick looks like, but how Narrator remembers him. These vivid memories suggest that Narrator has spent a lot of time committing Roderick's face to memory, something friends do not tend to do. The romantic tones to their relationship amplify as the two men begin to spend extended periods of time together. This intimate relationship between the Narrator and Roderick is solidified by the leisure activities they engage in together. The two are often described as reading together late at night by the fire in the den. This clearly has intimate undertones that suggest an increased level of comfortability between the two men. However, it is not only the behavior they engage in, but the books they read that clues reader into the homosexual relationship between Roderick Usher and Narrator. All of the texts the two men read depict women unfavorably or highlight male sexuality. One of the books specifically mentioned is Machiavelli's Belphegor. This novel is about the Devil marrying a woman, becoming terrified of her, and denouncing the concept of marriage and women in general (5). The idea of men turning away from women, when sexuality is an innate human desire, suggests that they should turn to other men. Additionally, Roderick is noted to especially like, and even dream about, passages in Pomponious Mela, a novel about the old African Satyrs and ?“gipans(6). Satyrs come from the Greek culture, which is known in part for its open-minded approach to sexuality, and are traditionally portrayed as hedonistic goat-men with permanent erections (Hubbard). It is not only his desire of men, but his disinterest in women that hint to Roderick Usher's homosexuality. In addition to the intimate relationship between Roderick and Narrator and their interest in homoerotic literature, the removal of the only feminine character in The Fall of the House of Usher, Madeline Usher, suggests a male homosexual relationship between the two main characters. After a few days with Narrator, Roderick claims that his sister has passed away and that they need to bury her under the house. However, the audience is left to question of Madeline Usher is really dead. Upon her burial, Lady Madeline is has blush upon the bosom and face and a lingering smile according to Narrator (Poe 12). Since the dead can neither blush nor smile, this suggest that she is still alive. However, despite noticing these signs of life, Narrator continues to participate in the burial. Obviously, there is a strong reasoning for these two men to bury a women alive and the insanity of homosexuality is clearly the answer. Madeline Usher must be disposed of in order for Roderick and Narrator to be together. A large portion of the text highlights the fact that Roderick and Madeline, both eligible, are the last in the direct line of decent for the Usher family (6). Clearly, in their incestuous family, it would be completely normal, and even expected, that Roderick and Madeline reproduce together. The only explanation for why they would not have a child, since it is the norm in their family, is a lack of physical attraction between the two. The instincts to have children that Roderick would have naturally possessed accompanied with a completely disinterested sexual attitude towards his sister and secret lust for men would have undoubtedly created unbearable pressure for Roderick Usher. It is entirely possible that this pressure led him to burying Lady Madeline alive. In addition to his sexual disinterestedness in his sister, Roderick also would have wanted to bury his sister to remove the possibility of Narrator being with her rather than him. Seeing as Roderick and Madeline are twins whom share a striking similitude (12), readers can assume Madeline represents a version of Roderick that the Narrator is socially allowed to love. She would have been the much easier choice for Narrator to be with. In burying her alive, Roderick hides the temptation from the Narrator, whose eyes follow her retreated step (8) the first time he sees her before looking back eagerly (8) to Roderick who has buried his face in his hands. Clearly Roderick is upset at the thought of the Narrator paying mind to Madeline rather than him. Therefore, it can then be inferred that Roderick may feel that his sister could possibly steal the Narrator's attention. With Madeline out of the picture, and the homosexual tensions rising, the mens' insanity, and therefore homosexual tendencies, continue to rise. The time period in which Poe wrote this piece allows the reader to assume that the deteriorating mental health of the Narrator and Roderick would have been connected to their homosexual tendencies. The Fall of the House of Usher was originally published in 1839, well before gender and sexuality rights existed and freedoms existed. In fact, during the 19th century, being a homosexual was actually considered a mental disorder (Herek), something we know to be false today. During the 1800's, mental disorders associated with insanity were treated very differently than today. Many people with mental disorders were shamed by their communities and feared by nearly everyone; this could be one of the reasons that Roderick seems to have little to no contact with the outside world. At the time, even writing about homosexuality could have been bad news for Poe, which explains why he chooses to leave Roderick's illness unspecified in the text and instead heavily hinted at it for close readers. Just like any other untreated disease, the homosexuality continues to spread as The Fall of the House of Usher continues. After spending time with Roderick, Narrator starts to see and hear things. He is becoming just as irrational as his host. Narrator's adoption of Roderick's symptoms represents his return to homosexuality but, this does not seem to be a choice for Narrator. One night, after about a week of being completely alone in the house with Roderick, Narrator has trouble sleeping. Overwhelmed and nervous, Narrator feels that there is an incubus (12) on his heart, which causes him to get up, put on some clothes, and go for a walk around the house to calm down. This is particularly interesting because while the common definition of incubus is a distress, religious and mythological scholar Jeffery Russel describes an incubus as a male sex demon which is known for having paranormal intercourse with their victims (Russell, 145). Interestingly enough, Stephen Walter, professional novelist, presents the traditional belief held that repeated sexual interactions with an Incubus can cause one's health to deteriorate, and can even result in death (Stephens, 23). By having the homosexuality caused through a supernatural being, Poe highlights the fact that sexuality is not a choice. This is obviously a metaphor for the inability for humans to control their sexuality regardless of its social status as good or bad. This is Poe's way of suggesting that despite being socially undesirable, homosexuality is not a choice. Although homosexuality and the idea that it is not a choice would be a very modern and forward thinking idea for Poe, it is not impossible for his work to address this issue. There are far too many homosexual references in this text to be ignored. Poe uses diction and references that suggest an intimacy between Roderick Usher and the Narrator, directly references literature the negatively depicts women and positively representing the sexuality of men, while giving both Roderick and the Narrator attributes suggesting their questionable sanity. While the traditional sane vs. insane is an easy way to interpret The Fall of the House of Usher, it is clear that the true meaning is much more specifically referencing the mental illness, or insanity, that is homosexuality and the lack of control humans have over it.

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Many Different Views on Homosexuality

Across the nation, there are many different views on homosexuality. India is one of the many countries that have a negative view on homosexuals. The rule of section 377 of Indian penal code, which establishes that homosexuality is an "unnatural sexual offence, has created a stigma that being homoseuxal is wrong and against nature (Economist 2008). It has also created a fear to come out because consensual homosexual sex is punishable for up to ten years in prison so the people brave enough to be openly homoexual have to keep it hidden (Voeten 2013) . However, more than anything, many Indian homosexuals worry more about exposure to their families and colleagues than about the law. (Economist). The laws and the people who support them are creating issues even in their personal relationships. Pakistan also has a similar view with homosexuality being an offence under Pakistan penal code and a growing prejudice for same-sex relationships (Infotrac 2014). Along with the many countries that don't support homosexuality, China strongly discourages this behavior. Homosexual acts receive harsh punishment because there is little space for discussion of gay partnerships and marriage (Chan, 2017). In 1865, the Hong Kong government adopted the Offenses against Persons Acts of 1861 which prohibited anal sex and bestiality in order to try to discourage sex between the same genders (Chan, 2017).In fact, being homosexual was declared a mental illness in China which can affect an individual psychologically to be classified under this category. To be told that you have a mental illness, are a sinner or are going against what's nature is extremely damaging to an individual. Japan is also a country that is having issues with psychological damage to individuals that are having to face society being against them. Japan is struggling with losing people to suicides due to this negative stigma. One to three high rates of attempted suicide have been homosexual and bisexual men compared to heterosexual men. Japanese men experience psychological tension from their homosexual feelings might not identify themselves as homosexual which can lead to difficulty coming out (Hidaka, 2006). In Japan the mental health consequences are especially high due to the fact that Japanese culture emphasizes public honor and avoidance of shame which is why homosexuals in Japan tend to hide their same-sex feelings which leads to the development of mental health issues (Hidaka, 2006). The problem that people are ignoring is how homosexuals are being psychologically affected by this negative treatment. Prior research has suggested that exposure to anti-homosexual bias can have important psychological and public health consequences (Hidaka, 2006). Mental health problems, including emotional distress, anxiety and depression can be caused when exposed to these types of bias. Having to hide such a large part that makes up your identity can lead to depression which also can cause identity problems, especially if this pressure occurs when growing up. A study of young homosexual men in their early adulthood in the US found that 37% of the people being asked had experienced verbal harassment, 22% had experienced discrimination and 5% had experienced physical violence in the recent past (Hidaka, 2006). This related to the fact that four to six mental health problems among homosexuals have a direct correlation to social stigma and prejudice which is shown in these statistics (Hidaka, 2006). This problem is unfortunately very present in other countries, however; it is also important to be aware that America still has a large amount of people that create this stigma and prejudice. These people don't realize the way that they're affecting them which is why it's important to spread the message that even if it's not something you agree with, no lives should ever be taken because of it.

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Development of Corticosteroids and their Formulation for Inhaled Drug Delivery

Contents

Introduction
Historical development of steroids
Issues with side effects that have arisen during the development
Aspects of formulation for inhaled drug delivery

Introduction

Steroids are biologically active organic compounds with substantial roles and functions in the cell. Chemically, steroids are known with four rings settled in a specific configuration [1]. They are powerful and effective drugs used in the treatment of various medical conditions.
There are two principal biological functions of steroids in a human cell. First, they act as important components of cell membranes, which alter membrane fluidity, and second, steroids act as signalling molecules [2].

Hundreds of steroids are found in plants, animals, and fungi. Steroid compounds are manufactured in the cell from the sterols lanosterol or cycloartenol, depending on the type of the species.

Cholesterol, estradiol, testosterone, and the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone [3] can be given as popular examples of steroids [4]. Corticosteroids, one of the most common steroid groups, have been used effectively in the treatment of arthritis, asthma, autoimmune diseases, skin disorders, and some types of cancer. Anabolic steroids, a different group of steroids, are rarely used in medicine. These compounds can be abused to improve performance in sports such as competitive athletics and weightlifting.

Inflammation is a significant feature of many diseases with apparently unlimited medical applications of steroids. The list includes some skin conditions such as eczema, psoriasis and skin inflammation, arthritis due to pain, swelling and limited joint mobility. Oral steroids can be prescribed for autoimmune diseases such as lupus, Crohn's disease, and multiple sclerosis. Besides, corticosteroids are used in the treatment of many eye diseases and some cancers. They relieve or reduce chemotherapy-related nausea and reduce some allergic reactions, such as those caused by blood transfusions. One of the main ways in which steroids work in the body is to reduce inflammation. This feature is important in conditions such as corticosteroids can be taken as pills or in the form of injections. However, there are other routes of administration as well, including inhaled corticosteroids, steroid creams, and ointments. Besides, the drug can be injected directly into an inflamed joint.

Additionally, steroids are effectively used to manage asthma. By reducing inflammation and controlling the body's immune system, corticosteroids help open the small airways. Steroids can be given with an inhaler as part of routine care to reduce symptoms for asthma and help prevent acute attacks. In an acute attack requiring a hospital visit, steroids are usually administered as intravenous injections.

This essay aims to give detailed information on the development of corticosteroids with an emphasis on their formulation for inhaled drug delivery.

Historical development of steroids

According to the 1920 edition of The Principles and Practice of Medicine [5], the relationship of Addison's disease with the adrenals was not fully understood. However, efforts were given to extract the hormone, and in 1930 a compound could be made ready for clinical trials [6]. Soon, first treatments of Addison's patients with the cortical hormone of the suprarenal gland were reported [7]. Thus it can be said that the first clinical evidence that an extract of animal adrenocortical tissue could be used to treat human adrenal failure, was demonstrated in the 1930s.

As chemical analyses of cortical extracts proceeded, it became clear that there is not one cortical hormone, but that they all are steroids [8]. By the year 1940, it was concluded that there are two categories of steroids: those that lead to a retention of sodium (and thus, fluid) and those that relieve shock and inflammation [9]

The widespread clinical use of intramuscular cortisone started after 1948 first in rheumatoid arthritis and soon later in other rheumatologic conditions. Only after 1950 it was possible to have oral and intra-articular administrations of cortisone and hydrocortisone.

Research continued to produce semi-synthetic cortisone with some success by the year 1952. Six synthetic steroids were introduced for systemic anti-inflammatory therapy during 1954 -1958. By 1960 almost all side-effects of chronic corticosteroid administration were described. Additionally, protocols were developed to withdraw these medications while minimizing symptoms of cortical insufficiency.

Dose adjustment and use of lower doses was an agenda of the researchers those days. Companion use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs began in the late 1950s first with phenylbutazone. In the 1970s the introduction of methotrexate and other anti-metabolites further delineated the dosages and indications for corticosteroids in the management of rheumatic diseases.[6]

Parallel to the medical use of steroid hormones, soon athletes discovered its use to win games. As a competitive species, the human has tried all kinds of things to be the best. Athletes have used various substances to improve performance since the beginning of civilization. Even before the invention of the steroids, in the 1860s, a group of swimmers in Amsterdam were charged with taking drugs to speed up their races.

After discovering the anabolic effects of steroids, probably the first application of this kind was among soldiers. German soldiers received testosterone during World War II to increase their performance and become successful on the battlefield.

Anabolic steroids are man-made versions of testosterone, a male sex hormone that helps build bigger muscles. The power of these substances in increasing the performance and boosting the muscle muscles led to widespread abuse. Abusers usually consume use extremely high doses. Some even take 100 times the dose legally prescribed by physicians [10].

In the 1940s testosterone began to be widespread in competitive sports, but the dangers of loading up on testosterone were not known in detail. In the 1952 Olympics, the Russian weightlifting and wrestling teams demonstrated a significant success, which was attributed to synthetic testosterone [11].

Scientists worked to formulate better performance-enhancing drugs after the 1950s. In the early days, there was still not enough awareness on the dangers these substances to users. By 1958, an American pharmaceutical company first developed anabolic steroids. With the widespread access and use, the nasty and hazardous side effects became obvious, but by then most athletes had access to the drugs.

From the 1950s into the 1970s, both the tales and facts of performance-enhancing drug use combined to increase actual use. Those athletes, who required bulk and strength to be competitive, like bodybuilders, football players, and shot put throwers, were the first to abuse anabolic-androgenic steroids. During the 1970's, the demand for anabolic-androgenic steroids grew as athletes in speed-dependent sports discovered some of the potential benefits of using anabolic-androgenic steroids.

All these practices were named as "doping", and were against the sports organizations' rules and against the law. In 1964, the International Olympic Committee first published a list of banned drugs and practices for athletes, but they did not ban steroids until 1975.

Chemical structures of steroids and how structural changes were developed

Steroids are organic compounds with a ring structure (Figure 1). The most important natural steroid compounds are bile acids, male and female sex hormones (Figure 2), and adrenal gland cortex hormones. Most of these hormones are found in the cell in trace ratios, while sterols, a kind of steroid compound, are found to be abundant [12].

Sterols are accompanied by a side chain on the main steroid roof [13]. Cholesterol is the most abundant sterol, free or bound in animal tissues. Plants do not contain sterols, but another sterol phytosterol is abundant. Other important steroids are vitamin D and cardiac glycosides.

Issues with side effects that have arisen during the development

Side-effects of the corticosteroids were already defined during the early invention phases of these compounds. Today, there are numerous studies describing the risks and side-effects of using steroids whether used locally [14] or systemic [15].

The known side-effects depend on the dose and how long the substance is taken. Side effects have been reported affecting many body systems, including gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, eye, metabolic effects, immune system, pregnancy and fertility, psychological effects, and skin. Short-term use can cause weight gain, puffy face, nausea, mood swings, and trouble sleeping. The skin may get thinner. Acne, unusual hair growth, and spikes in blood sugar and blood pressure are expected. Because corticosteroids turn down the immune system, taking them makes the person prone to infections.

Taking high doses of corticosteroids for a long time can cause serious side effects. Using them for more than 3 months can cause brittle bones and osteoporosis. Kids who take them for a long time might grow more slowly.

Anabolic steroids have similar side effects. These steroids can cause bad acne and fluid retention. Long-term use can stop the body from making testosterone. In men, this causes smaller testicles, lower sperm counts, infertility, and breast growth. Women may have male-pattern baldness, facial hair growth, periods that change or stop, and a deeper voice. Teens that use them might stunt their bone growth and height. High doses can lead to extreme mood swings, anger, as well as aggression.

Long-term anabolic use can damage the liver, kidneys, and heart. Severe fluid retention can cause heart swelling and heart failure. These drugs can also raise LDL cholesterol, which can make the person more likely to have heart attacks and strokes [16].

Aspects of formulation for inhaled drug delivery

New and easier ways of drug deliveries are invented every day. This is a fact also for steroids. Inhaled steroids are popular especially for the management of conditions such as asthma and chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD). Inhaled formulations have many advantages including faster effectiveness, fewer side effects, ease of use, tolerability, and lower costs.

Inhaled steroids are the mainstay treatment for controlling asthma. The use of inhaled steroids leads to better asthma control, fewer symptoms and flare-ups, and reduced need for hospitalization.

Inhaled steroids come in three forms: the hydrofluoroalkane inhaler or HFA (formerly called a metered dose inhaler or MDI), dry powder inhaler (DPI), and nebulizer solutions.

With aerosol devices, the typical inspiratory flow rate is around 30 litres per minute, which is a slow and steady breath in for around 4 seconds. The older pMDIs have a low deposition even with an ideal technique, of around 12% [17], although the newer devices have a softer plume and better valve technology, and some have smaller particle size increasing deposition. The Respimat device, although an aerosol inhaler, has a soft mist which increases deposition in the lung.

The DPIs are dry powders and require less coordination. They do, however, require an adequate inhalation as it is an inspiratory flow that releases the medication from the carrier agent. The DPIs require a quick and deep inhalation, which may be problematic in patients with little inspiratory effort, for example, those with severely compromised lung function [18].

Inhalers contain different medicationsbronchodilators or corticosteroids, either singularly or combined. These medications have different durations of onset and action and an inhaled corticosteroid, for example, will not give a noticeable effect. If the person does not get instant relief from the inhaler, then they may take more doses, or conclude that their inhaler doesn't work [19].

Inhaled steroids have few side effects, especially at lower doses. Thrush and hoarseness (rare) may occur. Rinsing the mouth, gargling after using the inhalers, and using a spacer device with metered dose inhalers can help prevent these side effects. Thrush is easily treated with a prescription of antifungal lozenge or rinse.

As a side note, it should be mentioned that many parents have concerns in giving their children "steroids." The public should be informed that inhaled steroids are not the same as anabolic steroids that some athletes take to build muscle or increase performance. These steroids are anti-inflammatory drugs, which constitute the cornerstone of asthma therapy.

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Steroids to Enhance the User’s Ability

Steroids are a drug used to enhance a steroid user's ability to perform a task, such as sports, lifting, or any physical activity. Steroids are a human made but some time from an animal or plants so they are natural. Steroids started back in the 1820's when they were tested on cockroaches. They are taken orally, injections and patches. The History of Steroids, in 1849 a scientist named Berthold did an experiment on cockroaches to test the development of male sexual characteristics. Then later in 1929 they were tested on Bull's testicles. A couple years later they tested during World War two there was evidence of Nazi's giving malnourished soldiers Steroids. It wasn't until 1954 till they found athlete's using anabolic Steroids during the Olympics; it was not until 1975 when the Olympic committee banned Steroid use. Steroids have a lot of common nicknames Steroid users call them, common nicknames include, Gym Candy, Pumpers, Roids, Stackers, Juice. Steroids can do a lot for the body. The Steroid user will experience rapid muscle growth and decrease in body fat. If the user has swelling the swelling will decrease while taking Steroids. The user will experience enhanced performance in any sport related activity. While taking Steroids for a short amount of time the user will have an increase in acne, mood swings, trouble sleeping, Decrease in sperm count and appetite. Over a long period of time Steroid use the user can experience liver disease and malfunctions in the heart, kidneys, and liver. People take steroids so they can have sport advantages, they want an increase in muscle mass, or they want to lose weight. Users can take the drug orally, injection through a needle, cream, gel, and patches. The user will notice effects of Steroids twelve to fourteen hours after taking the drug. After a couple of days, the drug will be at its peak, but sometime it will take a few months for the drug to kick in before the user notices any effects. Steroids are mostly a human made drug but can be found in some plant and animal cells. Steroids are used to enhance the user's ability to perform in any physical task. The first known use of steroids was in the 1820's on cockroaches to test male sexual characteristics. The user can take the drug orally, injections, gel, or patches. This drug may seem good at first because the user looks bigger in muscle mass and leaner but the user will experience a lot of problems if they choose to take Steroids for a longer period pf time.

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Why Performance Enhancing Drugs should not be Legal?

Well, when I think of steroids I think of an image. You have the advantage over someone, which is a form of cheating. I guess it wouldn't be right unless it was legal for everybody. Reason it's not legal for everybody is because it can hurt people seriously. Evander Holyfield. Performance enhancing drugs are a big problem in sports. Some people don't realize this and don't see much harm in the use of them. These drugs have been a problem in sports for a long time. Big name athletes such as Anderson Silva and Lance Armstrong have been caught doping which is another word for the use of performance enhancing drugs. These are only a few of major athletes who have been caught doping and there are many more athletes who haven't been caught. Performance enhancing drugs should not be legal in sports because they put the health of the athletes at risk, they influence the younger athletes, and they affect the integrity of sports. One of the biggest reasons that doping is illegal is because of all the harmful effects it can have on the body. According to law.marquette.edu The use of steroids can have serious health repercussions, including affected liver, endocrine, and reproductive function, tumors of the liver and kidneys, heart conditions, and psychiatric symptoms. These are only a few of the harmful effects that can happen if you use steroids. The chances of these side effects increase when the drugs are used more than the recommended amount and this usually always happens because people think that the more they take the bigger they are going to get and don't consider anything else like how they have to eat right and have a workout plan. Many people think they can just take these performance enhancing drugs and automatically get a huge strong built body by doing nothing. Taking these drugs will change the consumers whole life style. How they eat, how they train, and most importantly how their are harming themselves. Steroids are a very common type of performance enhancing drugs. These drugs are used quite common in sports and bodybuilding. A big problem when taking these is they aren't supposed to be consumed alone. There are many other products you take with these drugs such as a system support and many other pills that will decrease the harmful effects the steroids put on your body but they still make taking steroids harmful to your body. Many of the people who take these don't realize that they should be supported with other pills and just take them alone. These are drugs so many people do sell these illegally and smuggle them into the U.S. This makes people sell counterfeits of the drug. Just like other drugs such as cocaine and marijuana where people put in a bunch of other substances in it to make it weigh more so they can get more money out of it. According to anabolic.org counterfeit steroids are copies of real anabolic/androgenic steroid products, which are made from illicit producers. These drugs are intended for sale on the black market, ultimately to consumers who believe they are buying a legitimate pharmaceutical item from the labeled company. Most of the time these counterfeit drugs don't even contain any steroids at all and are just full of inert carriers, fillers, and binders. They mark their bottles to where they look identical to a legitimate brand of steroids and most people can't tell the difference. Some people make the argument to legalize steroids so they won't sell counterfeits anymore. Doing this would most likely cut down the buying of these counterfeits but still the main issue of steroids is the health risks and people would abuse this harmful drug. The side effects of the steroids can be different from a man and woman. According to www.webmd.com Men who take anabolic steroids may: Develop breasts, Get painful erections, Have their testicles shrink, Have decreased sperm count, Become infertile, and Become impotent. Women who take anabolic steroids may: Grow excessive face and body hair, Have their voices deepen, Experience menstrual irregularities, Have an enlarged clitoris, Have reduced breast size, and Have a masculinized female fetus. The effects can also be different on children such as being shorter and females can suffer from masculinization. These drugs have a lot of risk when taking them and yet they are still a very common used drug. Most of the effects of these drugs won't happen right away it will take time for these risks to really do damage to the human body. These drugs can be prescribed by the doctor if someone has suffered muscle loss from a disease such as cancer. Also if someone is suffering from hormonal issues. There is some good use in these drugs but most of the time people abuse these drugs. Most of the people who use these drugs are athletes or body builders. They think using this drug will make them better than everyone else and usually that is the case but it is also considered cheating by all of the professional associations. According to www.drugabuse.gov The majority of people who misuse steroids are male weightlifters in their 20s or 30s. There are many ways to take these drugs such as a pill, injecting them into the muscle, and using them as a gel substance. Usually these doses are like ten times the strength of a prescribed dose from the doctor. Not only do these drugs have an effect on the body but also the brain. These drugs can cause some to be paranoid, extreme aggression, delusions, and impaired judgment. These drugs can have a very big impact on someone's life just because they wanted to be better than everyone else when they were younger. The long term effects of these drugs are kidney problems, liver damage, tumors, enlarged heart, high blood pressure, and blood clots. There are many risks when someone decides to use these drugs and they can even be addictive to some people. These drugs don't cause a high like others but they still can be overused. People want to be bigger and better so they just keep taking them over and over. Some even take other drugs, like opiods, to help with the sleep problems steroids have gave them. People also will have withdrawals when they stop taking steroids after they have been consistently taking them for a while. These include fatigue, restlessness, loss of appetite, sleep problems, decreased sex drive, and steroid cravings. There even have been some cases of users who have had depression and suicide attempts. Steroids have been blamed for some cases of young adults killing themselves but usually there is not enough evidence to prove this. Another risk to the use of steroids is the needle. If the consumer injects himself with a needle that needle could result in the needle not being clean and then getting hepatitis or HIV. There are a lot of risks when taking these drugs but that doesn't mean that people are guaranteed to get these side effects but they really increase the chances of getting these. "It is like Russian roulette. Five people may take them and have no long-term problem. The sixth may end up dead." Kenneth Mautner. Another big reason for the professional athletes not to do performance enhancing drugs is they can put a big influence on the younger athletes. Many of the younger athletes have someone they look up to who is a professional athlete. They model their game after them and want to be them. If this athlete is caught doing these drugs or admits to it, it will send a message to the younger generation. It will send a message saying that performance enhancing drugs are the only way to be good at a sport and the only way to make it. It also could crush the younger players dreams and everything that they wanted to be. There have been many incidents were a professional athlete has been caught using performance enhancing drug. Some of the big name athletes who have been caught using these drugs such are Alex Rodriguez, Tonya Harding, Lance Armstrong, Pete Rose, and Anderson Silva. Getting caught using these drugs usually results in suspension or being banned from whatever professional league they are in. Alex Rodriguez was a huge star in Major League Baseball and he was the youngest player to hit 500 home runs. He was a very loved baseball star and had a lot of fame. After he was caught using performance enhancing drugs everyone was against him. The MLB suspended Rodriguez for 211 games. This forced him to miss the remainder of his 2013 season and all of 2014 season with no pay. He was forced to miss almost two years and got no pay for abusing these drugs. There are serious consequences for using these drugs and the leagues make it clear that if there is any use of these drugs then you will be punished. These professional athletes are having a big impact on the younger generation. According to www.nbcnews.com The confidential survey found that a majority of the students in grades 8 through 12 who admitted to using anabolic steroids say they would use a pill or powder to reach their athletic goals, even if it would harm their health or shorten their life. These kids would rather be good at sports and ruin their life instead of having a good and hard work ethic and have a healthier lifestyle. There are many more problems taking performance enhancing drugs as a developing teen then there are as a mature adult. These drugs have a way bigger effect on the younger and undeveloped bodies then they do a fully mature one. Some states are starting to test these younger athletes for the use of PEDs. There are a lot of problems with testing these athletes. The drugs don't stay in the system that long so if the athletes knew they were about to get tested then they could stop using them and wait for the test to pass and start using them again. These tests are also really expensive for each state to do them so this makes most of the states not do the tests. Another big reasons is there are many different PEDs so some of these drugs wouldn't show up on some of the tests. This makes it extremely difficult to test for every single PED. Most of the bodybuilders use PEDs and they look way bigger than most people. If a young kid saw these bodybuilders and wanted to look just like them and wanted to be as strong as them it could have a big impact on their life. When these kids find out that most of the bodybuilders are using PEDs then they think it is ok to use them. They will think it is the only way to look like them and be as strong as them. They don't take in consideration the workouts and the meal plans that they follow to become that big. They just think take these drugs and you will be stronger, faster, and healthier. If states would teach younger kids about the effects PEDs can have in their life and how dangerous they are then this would cut down the use of these drugs. Most of these kids have no idea what these drugs can do to their health and think there is no danger in taking them. So if schools would teach about these drugs and inform the students that they aren't as good as they sound then this could drastically cut down the use of these drugs in younger athletes and tell them that it is not worth the risk. Performance Enhancing Drugs also affect the integrity of the sport. Having any of the professional athletes take these drugs would give them an unfair advantage over the other players and would be considered cheating. Sports are suppose to be a fair competition between two teams to see who is better and deserves it more. Taking PEDs will give some people an unfair advantage over the opponent even if the opponent has worked harder than them. This not only is a form of cheating but it also is very dangerous. Take a sport like football or boxing both of these sports are very physical and can do major damage to the body. If the opponent has been doping they could be way stronger than the other opponent. They could be so much stronger than the other person they could actually do serious damage to their opponent and put their opponent into danger. It would be like going to school as a student you can't cheat on tests so for the athletes it should be no different. This is a form of cheating and it is why it's banned in all professional sports. These drugs can get someone to be stronger and faster than any technological device could. If someone was taking these drugs for a long time and they have been very consistent then there would be no way to reach their level of physical ability without doping. Watching sports is a very popular thing to do and very many people love it. There is a lot of doping going on in professional sports. A lot of the professional athletes have used these drugs at least once in their lifetime and some might even still use them. This is ruining the fairness of the games we all love to watch. Playing sports should be competitive and fair and who ever wins should be the person who worked harder and wanted it more, not the one who used the most PEDs or whoever used them longer. This is why doping needs to stop being in sports before it ruins them. Some players have even accused their college coach of hinting the use of PEDs at them. If college coaches are hinting PED use among their players then soon almost every player in the professional level will be using these drugs and then sports will no longer be who is the better team, it will be who has taken the most drugs. Colleges should warn their athletes about these drugs not try to encourage them to take them. It is not worth the risk and most payers don't understand that. All of these risks and they are still a very common drug in younger athletes. According to cbsnews.com With steroid use on the rise among high school athletes, clearly the message that drugs have no place in sports is not getting across. The temptation to win, earn that scholarship, or make big bucks is quite simply too much. They would rather be successful at a sport than live a strong healthy live. Everyone thinks russian roulette is stupid and no one is trying that for fun. Performance Enhancing Drugs are the same thing. The risks in taking these drugs are simply not worth it and never will be. Performance Enhancing Drugs shouldn't be legal in sports because they threaten the health of the athletes, they influence the younger athletes, and they affect the integrity of sports. Why would someone risk their life for an unfair advantage that could cost them their whole career.

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Using Anabolic Steroids and their Negative Effects

There are many kinds of drugs out there, each with its own positive and negative effects on the body. A commonly known and most widely abused drug by people participating in an athletic activity are anabolic steroids, which is chemically related to testosterone. According to Jeffery Potteiger (1994) the anabolic functions of testosterone are responsible for accelerating the growth of muscle tissue, bone, and it enhances the development of neural pathways (pg. 60). This drug contains both positive and negative benefits to one's health. But if taken in large doses, it poses serious physiological and physical damage to the human body. Although this drug is illegal worldwide, temptations arise for athletes or body builders to use anabolic steroids to gain the competitive advantage or to build muscle. Potteiger (1994) has found that anabolic steroids were first developed by a team of scientists that were able to create a synthetic form of testosterone to help treat men who were unable to produce enough of the hormone for normal growth and development (pg. 60). After people started noticing the increase in size and strength in these drugs, athletes starting in the 1950s started using anabolic steroids to gain the competitive edge. Since then, anabolic steroids have developed into a drug that athletes and nonathletes increasingly use. The development of this drug or when it was first noticed actually dates back in time to 1700 BC with the ancient Greek Olympic athletes. These athletes consumed the testes of animals such as bulls and sheep because the testes gave them more strength and an increase in performance. William Llewellyn mentioned that large amounts of anabolic steroid testosterone were contained in the testes for those animals and the Greek athletes did not know that fact (Llewellyn 2018). Many research studies have shown that using anabolic steroids led to negative effects on the brain such as mood regulation, sexuality, and behavior. Depression, anxiety, and cognitive deterioration are the main effects experienced when this drug starts to affect the neurotransmitter systems and largens the amygdala. Sanna Kailanto mentioned how long time anabolic steroid use can ultimately affect the brain's serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter systems which causes extreme aggression, depression, and anxiety (Kailanto). Anabolic steroids are synthetic compounds that mimic the effects of testosterone and in the human body, testosterone production is controlled by a group of cells in the hypothalamus. Not only does this drug affect the neurotransmitter systems and largens the amygdala, it also affects the hypothalamus which sends different messages throughout the body causing behavioral changes to occur. The use of anabolic steroids can also affect the cognitive functions of the brain along with parts of the brain that control behavior and mood. Bj??rnebekk et al. (2017) conducted a research to determine how the brain was affected for long time anabolic steroid users compared to non-users. After a neuro imaging scan of the brain was taken, results showed that the long time anabolic steroid users had a smaller overall cortical volume and thinner cortex in widespread regions than the non-users. When these parts of the brains are affected, cognitive functions such as memory and perception deteriorate, and a person's IQ tend to be low. Therefore, anabolic steroids are responsible for affecting parts of the brain that deal with cognitive and behavioral functions.

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Plato and Machiavelli

The way Plato the Republic and Machiavelli viewed leaders are similar The Prince and The Republic are books that are written in description of their authors. They explain what is expected of men in their lives. Both of the authors share major ideas, but there are also differences between the two. In The Prince and The Republic, telling the truth was not recommended. Plato and Machiavelli treat the revolutionary leader in the same vein, essentially prescribing different leaders through the same process. They each find their respective society fundamentally lacking in political efficacy, and thus seek to reestablish their conception of the political cycle. They also both ascribe to their leaders the understanding of pervasive metaphysical forces, and advocate similar treatments of knowledge, and presentations of public image. Event though the book has different authors, they still had similar characteristics.The Prince, was written to describe the ways by which a leader may gain and maintain power. Machiavelli developed that rulers would have to ignore the lofty ideals of politicshonesty, justice, honor, generosity, and so onand adopt whatever means necessary to gain and maintain power. That quote describes how telling the truth was denied. Machiavelli demanded The Prince, to be followed if a person wanted to be a successful leader and overpower others. Machiavelli believed as a ruler, it was better to be widely feared than to be greatly loved. Machiavelli knew that to obtain both would be difficult so fear was chosen over Love. The Republic was written by Plato who believed in Metaphysics . Plato was also the teacher of Aristocracy. Plato believed that the soul of a human is eternal. He asserted that the soul is immortal due to it withholding the truth . Plato's book is all about justice and how Socrates seeks to show that it is always in an individual's interest to be just, rather than unjust. Socrates states that when a man nears the end of his life, he reflects on the past and fears of the punishments he may suffer from in the afterlife. The books differ in numerous of ways.The books of Machiavelli and Plato were similar. Though the differences in the two books outweighed the similarities.Their ideas ranged from educating the leaders to sustain their rule to men in reality. The books these leaders have written are still influencing today's leaders. World leaders are practicing the ideas from these books in particular . The way to do specific things from the books should remain assertive in modern day society .In the Prince Machiavelli is giving advice to a ruler in order to keep that ruler in power.Plato and Machiavelli both were philosophers.Plato and Machiavelli's differences shine through the similarities that they have.hey are polar opposites. Plato is the classic champion of the idea of discovering the Ideal state before having any further plan of action; at least that is how he proceeds in his most famous and influential book, The Republic.It is not a coincidence, I think, that all of Plato's philosophy, whether correct or not, is very focused on finding the ideal in any situation. So, in theory, a chair is a chair because it partakes of some ideal chair that exists in the world of Forms, or Ideas.Machiavelli, at least in The Prince, is the classic philosopher of real politick. He states that it is his business to inquire how great rulers and states come to be in the first place, and that the question of being a good ruler is more an ethical, not a political-philosophy question. So, in The Prince, there are only the successful and the unsuccessful. Machivelli wants to know: What works?If anything, he pays too little attention to ideal conduct. It would be interesting to interview him if he lived into the 20th Century, and ask him what he thought of Hitler's politics so successful in the beginning, but utlimately leading to the near-destruction of his country!!!Plato defines a virtuous city as one where each individual does what he does best for the interests of the common good and where the ruler is a philosopher king, this in turn leads to the manifestation of justice. It is relevant to clarify that the definition of virtue, common good and justice is different for each author.Plato and Machiavelli differ from methods of obtaining knowledge.Plato used more or reasoned approach while Machiavelli used an empirical approach. While Plato was aiming for definitions and conclusions Machiavelli was looking for results. Machiavelli lived during the 16th century, amidst a deteriorating, corrupt and totalitarian, form or government. His masterpiece, The Prince, was written in an attempt to influence Lorenzo "The Magnificent", in the hope for a position in the public office. The Prince is therefore mainly a political paper Machiavelli's method is strictly inductive and his principles are purely practical, not moral. Plato is thought to have written The Republic around 380 B.C. Plato lived in Athens during the post- Peloponnesian War period. His views are shaped by Socrates and the after war political and moral atmosphere. Plato wanted to fight the Sophist belief that morality was only an idea created and imposed by the rulers of societies upon their subjects. Plato also wanted to combat the widespread belief that there is no such thing as objective truth. Plato in the Republic sets out to define what the virtue of justice is and why a person should be just.Plato and Machiavelli had different views on human nature that ultimately shaped their thinking.Plato believed that an individual has an immortal soul and a body that is a constant hindrance to the soul to acquire true knowledge.Cruel actions by the prince should be done at once, and quickly. Then the prince should slowly reward his people with benefits so that the cruel actions may be forgotten. "For injuries ought to be done all at one time, so that, being tasted less, they offend less; benefits ought to be given little by little, so that the flavour of them last longer.Cruelty, therefore, will not seem like it is committed everyday and people will soon forget if they are reassured with benefits.

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A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens

A Tale Of Two Cities was written by Charles Dickens, Published in London, by Chapman Hall in 1859. One of the main characters, Charles Darnay, leaves his hometown England because of the cruel acts of his family the Evremonde. He then travels to Paris where he is sentenced to go to prison because of his family the Evremonde. It is 1775, Mr.Jarvis Lorry is road tripping to Paris to explain to Lucie Manette, The long lost daughter of Dr.Manette, that she is not an orphan after all. Lorry then explains to Lucie that she must travel with him to meet her father Dr.Manette, The father of Lucie Manette who spent eighteen years in prison prior to the French Revolution, who had recently been released from prison from the Bastille. Dr.Manette had really lost all hope until he met his daughter for the first time. He knew Lucie was his daughter as soon as he compared a string of his wives hair to hers.He then regained all the hope and traveled back to London with Lucie and Mr.Lorry. Aproximatley five years after Manette and Lucie reunited the man named Charles Darnay was sent to court in London on account of treason for providing their English secrets to the French and Sydney Carton, a young drunk, depressed English man, who looks remarkably like Charles Darnay, precludes any positive identification and allows Darnay’s acquittal. After court Darnay, Carton, and Stryver eventually fall in love with Lucie. All of the men sway over Lucie, but she favors Darnay and marries him. A while later, Carton alone comes to Lucie’s home and tells her that while expecting no love in return, he would do anything for her at any time. Meanwhile Darnay has been hinting to Dr.Manette that he is a French nobleman who has renounced his title. Weeks later after their wedding, Darnay hears that his Uncle Monseigneur, has been murdered in his bed for his crimes against the French people, which means that Darnay is next in line to gain that title. He tells no more of this than to Dr.Manette. Darnay then travels back to Paris where he is imprisoned as a nobleman and an emigrant. Back home Dr.Manette, Miss Pross,Lucie’s governess, and friend, Lucie, and her child all follow Darnay to Paris. Once they arrive Darnay is once again denounced by the Defarges, leaders of the French Revolution, a charge which is made even stronger by Monsieur Defarge’s revelation of a paper document that he found in Dr.Manette’s old prison cell. The document recounts that Manette was imprisoned by the Evremondes by having witnessed the rape of a peasant girl and the murder of her brother. Darnay is then brought back to prison and sentenced to death. Unknowingly, Carton had also traveled to Paris because of Lucie. When Carton arrives he selflessly sacrifices himself to save Darnay’s life. Carton then forces the help of John Barsad to help him with plan. Shortly after, Carton overhears Madame Defarge, French Revolution leader who is obsessed with getting revenge on the Evremonde family, planning to kill Lucie and her child. Carton also figures out that Madame Defarge is the surviving sister of the peasant girl who was raped and of the boy who was stabbed by the Evremonde family. He then immediately plans for the Manettes to evacuate. After this Carton uses his influence with Barsad, a worker as a turnkey, to get into Darnay’s cell. Carton drugs Darnay, switches clothes with him, and then has Barsad carry him out to safety. Meanwhile, Madame Defarge knocks on the Manettes door expecting to see Lucie but gets Miss Pross. Madame Defarge snoops around looking for Lucie but Miss Pross will not let her go into any rooms. Not shortly after Miss Pross and Madame Defarge get into a fight. Defarge pulls out her gun meaning to shoot Miss Pross, but Miss Pross accidently aims it towards Defarges head and kills her. Back in London, Darnay returns back to the Manettes happily while Carton is walking up to the guillotine about to die in Darnay’s place happy, with the knowledge he is doing a good deed. Sacrifice is a major theme in A Tale Of Two Cities. I Mean think about it. Sacrifice is a major theme personally throughout this entire book. Dr.Manette sacrificed his own freedom in order to preserve his integrity. Charles Darnay sacrificed his family, wealth, and heritage in order to live a life free of guilt. And most of all Sydney Carton sacrificed his own life for the ones he loved. “ It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done it is a far, far better rest that I go than I have ever known”. Throughout all of these situations of sacrifice, Dickens suggests that, while painful in short term, sacrifice will lead you to a future, and happiness. A Tale Of Two Cities was not my cup of tea at first. Adding on to this, it was hard to interpret, and it did not interest me. However, when I started to uncover how emotional it was, how meaningful it was in so many ways, and the amount of sacrifice compounded into one book made me enjoy A Tale Of Two Cities. Saying this, I would recommend A Tale Of Two Cities to anyone who is interested in British Literature.

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A Tale of Two Cities – a Novel about the Devotion of a Family

One of the most well-known books is A Tale of Two Cities. A novel that tells the devotion of a family while England and France are in a major war. There are many elements to this story, including the plot, characters, and quotes, and this story's elements are very different than other stories'. The plot is one of the essential things to a story, and this story is no exception. Our story starts out in 1775. We find Mr. Lorry, a businessman, with a young woman, Lucie, going to free a prisoner with no crime over his head. The prisoner, whose name is Doctor Manette, and is also Lucie's father, has been held in France for the past 18 years. When they go to free him, they don't meet Doctor Manette though, in his place is a broken man who makes shoes. They head back to France with the broken Doctor Manette. Five years later, we head off to a trial, the trial of Mr. Charles Darnay, who is thought to be a spy. Miss Lucie and Doctor Manette are key witnesses in this case, and we see that the Doctor is no longer as broken as he was. During the trial, however, they reveal how Charles has a look-alike stranger, Mr. Sydney Carton. Darnay is called innocent. Both Carton and Darnay have taken a liking to Miss Lucie. Later on, Charles Darnay actually does marry Lucie. On their wedding day, Charles has a long talk with Doctor Manette about his life before he came to England. He is actually Charles Evremondes and is apart of a rich family in France. But as it turns out, the rest of his family are jerks. The Doctor decides that Charles is not like the rest of his family. France is not doing too great. Charles uncle, the Marquis, has been stabbed in the night and is dead. The Marquis though has made a lot of enemies. So many enemies in fact, that the caretaker of the mansion has been arrested and put in prison. Charles receives a letter from this caretaker as he asks Charles to come and witness to his trial, so without telling his wife or father-in-law, he heads off to France. His timing couldn't have been worse, as the revolution is happening. When he gets to France, he has been taken prisoner. Luckily, his favorite family is to the rescue. It takes a long time, but the Doctor does free Charles. Sadly though, the same night he is released, he is arrested again. The next day, a trial is held, a man named Defarge, the leader of the rebellion, produces a letter that Doctor Manette wrote when he was in his prison cell, depicting why he was arrested. His letter contains a tale of death, rape, and horrible human beings, these horrible human beings were Charles' father and uncle. The Jury decides to kill Charles for his father's crimes. The night before he is executed, Sydney Carton, Charles' look alike stranger, shows up and takes Charles' place. He wants to die for Charles, so Charles can live a long life with his wife and daughter. The next day, Sydney dies by the guillotine, as he says that it is the best action he has ever taken. This plot is exciting, adventures and amazing for its time. Characters are also very significant to the story. Two significant characters are Doctor Manette and Lucie. Doctor Manette is an outstanding guy, especially considering all the hardships in his life. He was a prisoner for a long 18 years. He became a broken man as he started making shoes to keep himself sane. His daughter pieced him back together. We soon see that he is just an overall good guy. The night before Lucie's wedding, she has set out a time just for the two of them to sit and talk. She is worried that he will suffer from her marriage, but he says to her. "'My future is far brighter, Lucie, seen through your marriage than it could have been than it ever was without it... Believe it love! Indeed it is so. Consider how natural and how plain it is, my dear, that it should be so. You, devoted and young, cannot freely appreciate the anxiety I have felt that your life should not be wasted-wasted my child- should not be wasted, struck aside from the natural order of things, for my sake. Your unselfishness cannot entirely comprehend how much my mind has gone to this' but only ask yourself, how could my happiness be perfect, while yours was incomplete?'" There is no question that he only wants what is best for his child, even if it's not the best for him. But the fact that he is selfless isn't what makes him a good character in my mind, but that he is still haunted by his imprisonment. Whenever times get hard, he goes straight to his old ways and starts making shoes. He copes with his feelings this way because he doesn't know how to do anything else. He goes into this trance that he used have during his prison time. But he wouldn't have made it out of this trance if it wasn't for his daughter, Lucie Manette. "She was the golden thread that united him to a Past beyond his misery, and to a Present beyond his misery." Lucie always has her father's best interest in mind. She wants to make sure that he is doing well, is happy, and that he isn't troubled by the choices she makes. She is selfless, just like her father, and she loves people so much. She just about faints when they call her husband to the guillotine but pulls herself together because she wants to be there for Charles. Lucie and Doctor Manette go hand in hand and are two of the most important characters in Tale Of Two Cities. One thing every book needs are good quotes. I think there are two outstanding quotes in this story. In the first quote, Doctor Manette has just come out of a "depressed" state, which he went to making shoes on his workbench. His friend, Mr. Lorry is asking him to explain why this experience might have happened. "'You see,' said Doctor Manette, turning to him after an uneasy pause, 'it is very hard to explain, consistently, the innermost workings of this poor man's mind. He once yearned so frightfully for that occupation, and it was so welcome when it came; no doubt it relieved his pain so much, by substituting the perplexity of the fingers for the perplexity of the brain, and by substituting, as he became more practiced, the ingenuity of the hands, for the ingenuity of the mental torture; that he has never been able to bear the thought of putting it quite out of his reach. Even now, when I believe he is more hopeful of himself than he has ever been, and even speaks of himself with a kind of confidence, the idea that he might need that old employment, and not find it, gives him a sudden sense of terror, like that which one may fancy strikes to the heart of a lost child.'" (Page 201.) This is talking about how Doctor Manette deals with pain, he uses his hands to create something new, in his case, shoes. He wants to keep his workbench by him just in case he might need it whenever that pain comes to him. It frightens him to think about what he would do if he didn't have that workbench to help him release his feelings and thoughts. I love the analogy of this quote as those who have had this experience understand, while those who haven't experienced it simply don't. Another quote that is incredibly descriptive talks about one of the ways the French used to kill people for their crimes, the Guillotine. Above all, one hideous figure grew as familiar as if it had been before the general gaze from the foundations of the world--the figure of the sharp female called La Guillotine. It was the popular theme for jests; it was the best cure for a headache, it infallibly prevented the hair from turning grey, it imparted a peculiar delicacy to the complexion, it was the National Razor which shaved close: who kissed La Guillotine, looked through the little window and sneezed into the sack. It was the sign of the regeneration of the human race. It superseded the Cross. Models of it were worn on breasts from which the Cross was discarded, and it was bowed down to and believed in where the Cross was denied. It sheared off heads so many, that it, and the ground it most polluted, were a rotten red. It was taken to pieces, like a toy-puzzle for a young Devil, and was put together again when the occasion wanted it. It hushed the eloquent, struck down the powerful, abolished the beautiful and good. Twenty-two friends of high public mark, twenty-one living and one dead, it had lopped the heads off, in one morning, in as many minutes. The name of the strong man of Old Scripture had descended to the chief functionary who worked it; but, so armed, he was stronger than his namesake, and blinder, and tore away the gates of God's own Temple every day." (Page 272.) I love how it says that it is like a toy-puzzle for a young devil, who might take it apart for a while, meaning he doesn't use it, or he might play with it every day, meaning he uses it a lot. It explains how people thought that God had abandoned them. Another fascinating part to me is that if you didn't know what the Guillotine was, then you had no clue how it stopped people's hairs from turning gray, was the best cure for a headache or was a razor that shaved close. These two quotes describe something in a way no one would expect it, which is why they are my favorite quotes. Everyone's opinion matters and everyone has a different opinion.My opinion is that I would recommend A Tale of Two Cities. It is a novel bursting with action, romance, plot twists and lessons I think everyone should learn. But if you are lucky enough to read and understand A Tale of Two Cities, I think you will be very impressed and delighted by the story. There are key points that every book must have like plot, characters, quotes and how people see the book/recommend it. A Tale of Two Cities is bursting at the seams with so many different aspects, including romance, action, deep characters, and even deep quotes. So let me ask you, what other books have you read that carry the same complexity, same detailed plot and characters, and the same thought-provoking quotes as A Tale of Two Cities?

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Tale of Two Cities about Sacrifice

The word sacrifice can be viewed differently based on perspective. The meaning of sacrifice can be either for the good or bad. Sacrificing something by your own will shall make you a better person in your own perspective. When something is so close to the heart that you can't just devote your power over someone else's happiness. In the novel, A Tale of Two Cities, the character named Sydney Carton plays a very heroic role at the end of the novel. His love towards Lucie Manette devotes him to sacrifice his own life for her happiness while changed him as a person and made him do something beyond his values. The particular sacrifice illuminates the character's values and provides a deeper understanding of the meaning of the work as a whole because the idea evolves around resurrection. The whole meaning of the novel is based on characters being recalled to life. Carton's values in life were always the same but because of the lack of pursing his life, he never really needed to prioritize anything. Thus, Carton's values such as his integrity, reliability, and care for Lucie is shown through his sacrifice of his life which resurrected him into a better person. Sydney Carton's values of integrity have made him a better person. As described by Dickens, Carton is an alcoholic, has lack of respect towards other and just didn't care about life in general. At a young age, his parents died and that made him this way. He always had the motto of?…- I don't care about anyone, so no one cares about me. (Dickens, 87) But, this was Carton before he fell in love with Lucie. Lucie resurrected him in being an honest person from what he was before. The man who said he doesn't care about the anyone later confessed his love for a girl. As stated, O Miss Manette, when the little picture of a happy father's face looks up in yours, when you see your own bright beauty springing up anew at your feet, think now and then that there is a man who would give his life, to keep a life you love beside you! (Dickens, 157). This shows that how Carton knows that he won't be able to have Lucie in his life but wishes for their happiness and well being. Lucie certainly changed Carton in being a better person which changed him from his old self. Also it states that, I see that I hold a sanctuary in their hearts, and in the hearts of their descendants, generations hence. This shows that he was not on the same page with Lucie about his love confession but believes that their family will recall him back to life. All in all, this shows that they Carton become a better person by showing his integrity towards Lucie who devoted him in being this way. Reliability was one of the other values of Sydney Carton. It could mean that he kept his promise and is loyal to it. He did make a promise to Lucie that he went to pursue at the end of the book. This has resurrected him as a better person because he did what he promised. As he stated, Be comforted! he said, I am not worth such feeling, Miss Manette. An hour or two hence, and the low companions and low habits that I scorn but yield to, will render me less worth such tears as those, than any wretch who creeps along the streets. Be comforted! But, within myself, I shall always be, towards you, what I am now, though outwardly I shall be what you have heretofore seen me. The last supplication but one I make to you, is, that you will believe this of me. (Dickens, 152) This means that he has a last request that he wants to make and wants Lucie to believe in him. His promise that he made to Lucie will uplift her life. Based on the text it states that, O Miss Manette, when the little picture of a happy father's face looks up in yours, when you see your own bright beauty springing up anew at your feet, think now and then that there is a man who would give his life, to keep a life you love beside you! (Dickens, 153) This proves that he is ready to even give his life away for the ones Lucie cares and loves. His promise indicates the reader that he will sacrifice his life for Lucie's happiness. While he wants to be remembered that he will also a part of Lucie's well being in the future. Thus, Carton becomes a better person which shows his reliability because he kept up with the promise that he made to Lucie. Lastly, Sydney Carton showed his care for Lucie by sacrificing his own life for her happiness. As the previous paragraph states about the promise he made which was that he is ready to give up his life for Lucie or any other member that Lucie cares for. Lucie's husband, Charles Darnay was accused of being a spy and was sentenced to death. But, as Dickens informed the reader that Darnay and Carton looks alike. So, Carton pretends to be Darnay and sacrifices his life for Lucie. As stated, Quickly, but with hands as true to the purpose as his heart was, Carton dressed in the clothes the prisoner has laid aside, combed back his hair, and tied it with the ribbon the prisoner had worn.(Dickens, 350) This shows that he got himself in the form of Darnay which prepared him to sacrifice himself for the love of his life. In addition, his statement that he stated before dying was that It is far, far better thing I do than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to than I have ever known. (Dickens, 372) This shows that he sacrificed his life for the person whom he loved. Lucie's love towards Darnay made Carton sacrifice his life for her because he said that he would give away his life for the ones that Lucie cared about. Overall, Carton's care towards Lucie's happiness led him to give away his life and which made him a better person because he was resurrected into Lucie's life again, as a better person. Conversely, Carton showed his honesty, he kept up with his promise and his care and love towards Lucie devoted him to sacrifice his life for her. He kept up with his values in life and Lucie helped him to be a better person. He showed a great progression from a person he used to be to who he is now remembered as. It is truly what matters that someone believes as their values in life and it's also the good deed that carries your further. Not only has he been recalled to life after his sacrifice but also recalled to life as being an honest person, showed great reliability and most important love and care which emphasized his values in life.

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Wind Energy in the United States

In 2018, a greater demand for renewable energy is encountered. Renewable energy sources are desirable as they do not have a finite limit or can be recycled, unlike fossil fuels. The main source of energy that has been used since the Industrial Revolution has been the burning of fossil fuels, which produces greenhouse gases. The emission of greenhouse gases has played a major part in human-caused climate change. As our energy demand grows and our climate continues to change rapidly, an increased importance is placed upon the need for new/more efficient technology, as well as an increase in the amount of renewable energy being produced. In this paper, the value of wind as a renewable energy source is explored. Harnessing wind energy is not new to humans. Many ancient cultures were known to utilize wind power in some form or another. Windmills and turbines that produce energy have been in use since the 1800's (Ehrlich, 2017). The technology had slowly been improved upon, until the first large wind farms in the U.S. were installed in the 1980's (Kaldellis, 2011). Today, wind farms are seen across the entire country and in offshore sites. Wind energy is predicted to grow in the U.S., as the government released in a statement made in 2008 that wind would account for 20% of the country's energy use (DOE, 2008). Wind energy has several advantages. First, wind power is extremely cost-effective. Land-based utility-scale wind is one of the lowest-priced energy sources available. The production of wind energy is cost-free as it does not require fuel as the burning of fossil fuels or some other renewable energy sources do. Wind is also a domestic source of sustainable energy, as each region has an abundant and inexhaustible supply (Ehrlich, 2017). The American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) states that over the past 10 years in the U.S., wind power capacity increased over 30%. Wind now has the largest renewable generation capacity of all renewable energy sources in the U.S (2018). Wind is increasing more rapidly than any other renewable energy resource. Government support has made some of the expansion possible, but its principal attraction is wind power's inherent environmental attributes (Pasqualetti, 2010). Wind energy is a completely clean fuel source. It doesn't pollute the air like power plants that rely on combustion of fossil fuels. Coal or natural gas use emits greenhouse gases, like nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide, that can lead to human health problems. Downsides to this technology include changes to the environment around a wind farm. Initially, the wind farm will alter temperatures in the surrounding area and downwind of the farm. Overtime, however, the temperature change will be less drastic than the change that would have been expected from global warming. Bird deaths are also a side effect of wind farms. Environmental agencies advocate for the birds' safety, but the number of bird deaths caused by wind farms are a small fraction of the total number of deaths caused by humans overall (Ehrlich, 2017). Some opposers to wind energy become upset with environmental changes, but not because of degradation to the land. Not in My Backyard (NIMBY) is a phrase used to describe person who will support an issue so long as it does not affect his or her day to day life in a seemingly negative way. Complaints from the public of aesthetic pollution keep wind turbine production down in populated areas. This is seen locally, where residents do not want to surrender their views to wind turbines. Wind technology requires a high initial start-up cost (Ehrlich, 2017). Though becoming less expensive with the introduction of new technologies, it is still more costly to purchase than the technology required for fossil fuel combustion. Where fossil fuel combustion can occur anywhere, the production and storage of wind energy is often forced into remote locations, where there is adequate land for a large wind farm. While wind is plentiful here, energy demand is low. Transferring energy to places with higher demand would require high voltage, expensive power lines. Wind is a variable energy source; it is always not readily available like other sources. Energy storage then becomes necessary, where power is produced and held for future use. Storing energy is costly, but it allows for utilization of energy during peak demand times. The main goal of wind turbine technology advancements is to increase efficiency and to reduce costs. The method that solves these issues is improving the energy capacity factors of wind turbines. This is one of the driving forces behind the size increase seen in turbines over the years with the other being increased level of wind availability the taller a turbine is. In the 1980's and 1990's, rotor diameters were under 20 meters wide. Modern turbines have diameters of 150 meters or more, with predictions of turbines being 250 meters in offshore farms (Ehrlich, 2017). The bigger the rotor, the more energy can be produced. With bigger rotors comes a whole new set of problems. The increase in stresses that a bigger rotor places on the wind turbine requires advancements in the technology's control system. Control system and gearbox improvements have led to greater turbine reliability (Power-Gen, 2014). To combat the supposed unaesthetically pleasing nature of wind turbines and the inability to supply wind produced energy to populated areas, cities around the world have invested in building-integrated wind turbines (Ehrlich, 2017). The wind turbine becomes part of the architecture and supplies power to the building. Initial building cost is high, but profit is possible as seen in Bahrain World Trade Center. There, the turbines produce 10-15% of the building's energy need for less than 5% of the overall cost of the building. New buildings with integrated wind turbines are designed to maximize the wind's power production. However, turbines added to preexisting buildings (on rooftops) can be manipulated to increase production as well, such as angling the blade downward to catch updraft from the building. The population of the United States makes up 5% of the global population, yet the country consumes 24% of global energy (EIA, 2017). The energy demand in the U.S. is comparatively higher than other nations (excluding China) and is projected to increase. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2017 saw a record high of renewable energy production, around 11 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) equal to 12.6% of the country's overall energy production (2018). The total primary energy consumption in the U.S. for the same year was 97.7 quadrillion Btu. There are several states in the U.S. with wind classes of 3 and above (suitable for wind energy production) that have the combined potential to produce up to 80% of the country's consumption (Elliot, 1993). This estimate excludes areas that are unsuitable for wind farms, such as parks or wetlands. The U.S. Department of Energy's 2008 report 20% Wind Energy by 2030 predicted that wind power could supply 20% of all U.S. electric power, with the assumption that reliability and capacity factor technologies of turbines continued to improve. With the continued decrease in wind technology cost, it is likely that wind energy production will continue to expand, but without push from the public and the government, it is unlikely that potential for wind energy will be met in a timely manner. The federal government uses subsidies and incentives to stimulate utilization of renewable energy technologies. As with all energy projects, federal, state, local, and utility financial incentives are available for wind projects. Governmental financing of projects is an integral part of the successful implementation of utility-scale wind energy. Some wind-specific incentives the U.S. has used in the past include Production and Investment Tax Credits (PTC and ITC). Originally enacted in the Energy Policy Act of 1992, PTC is a production-based tax credit implemented to level the playing field between wind energy and the incentives provided to other energy sources. ITC provides a credit for investment costs at the start of a new wind project (Kaldellis, 2011). The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA or the Recovery Act) allowed wind projects to receive a cash grant of 30% of a project's capital costs instead of taking the PTC or ITC. The Economic Stimulus Act of 2008 provided a 50% first-year depreciation cost provision for projects built between 2008 and 2010. The American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 extended the 50% bonus to projects through December 31, 2013 (Zafarikis et al, 2013). The People's Republic of China is the world's leading producer of wind energy. 34% of global production occurs in China. China is also the top consumer of energy, with an estimated exponential growth in future energy demand (Ehrlich, 2017). It is imperative for China's economy to use sustainable energy sources that can fulfill the country's colossal need. Coal still makes up the largest part of China's energy consumption but that is changing, and quicker than anticipated. China is on track to install the addition of 110.4 GW of onshore wind capacity to China's existing capacity (264 GW total) over the next three years, meaning that it would surpass the original target of 210 GW set during the 2016-2020 Five-Year Plan period. China is also predicted to have an offshore wind capacity of 26 GW by 2026 (Froese, 2017). China's aggressive push for clean, sustainable, affordable energy could possibly be influential enough to affect change throughout the world. The Stone Age did not end because humans ran out of stones; instead mankind transitioned to more effective and advanced solutions. The same opportunity is present in 2018 with energy efficiency and clean energy. The cost of the electricity produced from the clean energy source of wind by increasingly advanced turbines is competitive with conventional sources of energy, including fossil fuels. It is possible that without government involvement, it would take nearly half a century to reach combined renewable energy potential and energy goals set within the U.S. This is not quick enough to deal with issues concerning climate change. A growing interest in wind energy from the scientific, financial and public-policy communities, as well as the general public, is the only way to accelerate the transition to affordable, sustainable energy that will offer energy security and mitigate climate change.

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About Wind Energy

Using wind as the primary source of energy you have to supply yourself with electricity is interesting to think about. After some research though, I have found that wind energy can be used in very effective ways. There are many ways that wind energy has been proven to be better than other forms of obtaining and using energy. Wind energy is a great source of energy that should be used more in the future. Here are some ways that using the wind for energy is a better way of doing things. You do not have to burn anything to produce it, causing no pollution. There is and always will be wind in the atmosphere, so it is reliable and will never run out. It only takes small amounts of space to harbor enough windmills to give power to entire cities. The price of using wind energy is dropping every year and will continue to become cheaper. Costs to build and repair windmills is low. People that use wind energy are protected against sometimes life threatening power outages that other sources of energy sometimes experience. The list is much bigger but those are just some facts about how wind energy is better. Of course though nothing is perfect and wind energy does have a few cons. If you are looking to operate large numbers of buildings and equipment using wind energy, you will need a large number of windmills. This could turn out to be pretty costly when you get into large numbers of windmills and the land you must buy to put them on. Windmills are not a cheap investment upfront. Although they turn out to save you money in the long run, getting them built requires and large investment of money up front. There have been many noise complaints reported from neighboring homes of windmills that they are too loud and disturb the peace. Windmills have also been flagged as a threat to wildlife because they kill many birds and take away many other animals habitats. Believe it or not, there have been complaints on how windmills look too. People have said that they disturb the beauty of nature. (Jeff Whiting) Imagine never having to pay an electric bill again. If you put a small wind turbine in your backyard it would produce enough electricity each day to more than abundantly run your house. (14 little-known facts about wind energy.) You could save an enormous amount of money each year not paying an electric bill. The average household electric bill right now in the united states is $110.21. (Josh Miller) If you had a wind turbine producing your home's electricity, that would be one hundred extra dollars to use or save a month. From the research done, wind energy overall sounds like a really practical and cheap way for us to produce electricity. When compared to other sources of energy, it is much more effective. More people should look into using wind energy. It's a growing source of energy and in the near future will most likely be one of the major sources of energy used world wide. In the long run it is drastically cheaper and eases the pollution on the world. So many other sources of energy pollute the earth and drain peoples wallets. Wind energy is a very effective solution to that problem world wide. Wind energy is cheaper, more effective, and more practical than other sources of energy. Using natural elements to power our world is the smart thing to do. Wind energy will dramatically change how we live for the better.

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How Wind Energy Destroyed our Wild Life

Renewable energy is generated by a natural and unconventional source it only need to convert natural energy sources such as the sun, wind, and water into continual energy to facilitate their use in everyday life. Renewable energy is widely available in nature, unlike underground fossil fuels in limited forms like oil, gas, and coal and can be implemented from repeated use. The wind turbines are environmentally friendly and do not contaminate the air with carbon dioxide, sulfur, or hydrogen sulfide residues, as do traditional generation plants. Wind turbines differ from power plants because they are confined to sites where the proportion of wind is high in the mountains or near sea currents. A question that has always been asked by scientists and friends of the environment is do wind turbines negatively affect the earth? and do they damage marine areas and the wind farm? Most people believe wind power is one of the best ideas to create clean and affordable energy. However, wind power does not respect its promise to respect the environment. Wind energy, with its giant turbines, destroys wildlife, interferes with radio signals, causes noise, and changes the ocean's general circulation. Birds take many places to live by balancing between protection from predators and the zones to access food, taking into account the Effort to bring the food for their babies and the time-consuming. to achieve this balance birds especially migratory. take high places such as mountains, highlands and then the coasts. And all those areas are tempted the wind energy researchers, also those places the wind does not stop throughout the year. Some of the effects that wind turbines cause on birds: death through collision or decrease by altering the housing due to inconvenience, which leads to decreased births in birds. Director of Science Nature Conservancy in Wyoming, Holly Copeland remarked, Over a half million birds and about a million bats, a study in 2013 by Smallwood, et al showed. And if you run those numbers out for Wyoming there are about 5000 grassland birds, we would be losing every yearthere was a paper that showed 20 eagles and in addition to that Duke Energy reported 52 eagles as well. Bats live anywhere in the world except pole north and Antarctica, but they favor warm areas like rainforests and prefer mountains because of their dark caves with hardly any light and much to eat. Bats travel at night depending on their ears, not their eyes and with the presence of those giant wind turbines that occur strong voices, disturb and change bat tracks and push them to collide with those turbines. Coastal wind farms provide renewable energy, but the activities that accompany them during their construction and the local air circulation of turbines affect marine mammals that use sound as a means of communication, food creation, movement, and reproduction

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Viability of Wind Energy Generation in Nigeria

Contents

Power Sector
Energy Policy in Nigeria
CONCLUSION

ABSTRACT

Globally, it is on record that wind energy is fast becoming a growing technology in energy generation. The usual erratic and epileptic power supply in Nigeria is no longer news. This, coupled with the interest in global warming must be a great concern for all and should activate our passion to key into strong demand for wind energy generation. With the attendant advantages of absence of harmful emissions, very clean energy, a great proportion is converted into electricity. Unfortunately, Nigeria where the wind power is estimated to be high or moderate has not connected this Renewable source to the grid. It is not just enough to say that the wind turbines should be connected to the grid because there are sufficient wind speeds to drive the wind turbine, mostly, the stability, reliability and viability studies must be carried out whenever wind power is to be connected to power system to predict severe consequences on the system to which the wind generators will be applied.

This paper therefore assesses the viability of wind power sources in Nigeria and specifies the conditions to be met before this renewable energy can be of optimum utilization to all.

INTRODUCTION

Wind is one of the abundant natural energy resources in Nigeria, an alternative energy source that has not been fully developed and utilized. Considering it as a promising alternative to the current inadequate power generation will go a long way to address the epileptic power supply across the country and also cater for the teeming rural dwellers. Wind energy has been significantly developed in other parts of the world and this has helped to improve their energy status. Most countries who have considered wind energy as a viable means of power generation have found out that wind energy has a decentralized mode of operation that reduces transmission and distribution failure .Apart from this, wind energy is cheap, free, available, friendly to the environment and abundantly available. This is exactly what is obtainable in Nigeria. Wind energy can be used in form of mechanical energy, as wind generator, wind power, wind converter, wind turbine and so on.

Wind as a natural phenomenon is essentially related to the movement of air masses resulting from the differential heating of the earth surface. Unfortunately the country has not realized the enormous energy generation available to us in this regard.

ASSESMENT OF FAVOURABLE FACTORS FOR WIND ENERGY IN NIGERIA

Location on world map

In term of location, Nigeria is situated in West Africa and within latitude 4.32?—¦ N and 14?—¦ N and longitude 2.72?—¦ E and 14.64?—¦ E with a total area of 923,768 km2. As of 2014, it has a population of 186.1 million, which made it the most densely populated country in Africa .Nigeria has become Africa's largest economy with the 2016 GDP estimated at USD 1.1 trillion. Its economy relies heavily on crude oil and natural gas, with a global ranking of Number 10 and Number 9, respectively, in terms of the proven reserved.

Power Sector

Nigeria shows a sharp rising trend,from13,463 GWh in 1990 to 30,390 GWh in 2014 .In the 1990s, oil and coal contributed up to 20% of the electricity production, but these sources were phased out, leaving only two major sources; natural gas at 82.4% and the remaining contributed by hydro (see Figure 4) .Table 3 shows the electricity usage in various sectors in Nigeria from 1990-2014,more than half of the electricity generated in Nigeria was consumed in the residential sector, followed by commercial, public service and industrial sector.

OUR ENERGY SITUATION AND NECESSITY OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

It is an open secret that currently our energy situation is pathetic. This is so because the total installed power capacity is 12.5 GW; 85% gas, 15% hydro only with an average available capacity of 31% [2].For an estimated population of about 200million people the demand has always outweighs the supply. With an estimated demand of 31GW as at 2015 [3], the average available capacity was 4GW (less than 35% of installed). The demand is ever increasing and current fossil fuels which have been the mainstream of our economy based generations have suffered greatly due to gas shortages, obsolete equipment, and incessant attacks on pipelines by vandals amongst other identifiable constraints. The effect of global warming and climate change is happening right now - desertification of the northern part, drying of the lakes, overflow of some rivers, and encroachment of land by the ocean.

Currently, only four existing project were found in the country: a 5.0 kW/h wind power project in Sayya Gida-Gada Sokoto, 0.75 kw/h Danjawa village, 1 kW/h, hybrid wind-solar in NCCE, Benin, and finally a 10 mW wind farm under construction in Katrina state and these are grossly inadequate to cater for the ever increasing population.

The demand always outweighs the supply. E.g. with an estimated demand of 31GW as at 2015 the average available capacity was 4GW (less than 35% of installed).

GLOBAL TRENDS IN WIND ENERGY DEVELOPMENT AND OPTIMIZATION

Wind energy is today one of the fastest growing renewable energy source in the world .This is so partly because wind is among the cheapest renewable sources per unit of electricity produced. Analysis indicates that a network of land-based 2.5MW wind turbines could supply over 40 times current worldwide electricity consumption [2]. Day by day wind energy generation markets are continuously developing globally. In 2009, 82 countries used wind to generate energy, and 49 countries increased their installed capacity [3].

Middle East and Africa also recorded a total of 230MW of newly installed capacity with almost 90% growth rate in Morocco and 170% growth in Tunisia. Although these values are small compared with wind energy producing regions like North America, Europe and Asia, the presence of wind energy in remote locations of the world simply highlights the continued rapid growth in global demand for emissions-free wind power. A careful analysis of countries with high wind energy utilization have even gone a step further to patent their wind energy technology.

TYPES OF WIND POWER

There are different types of wind power generator but the most common are called windmills, or wind turbines. These have two major distinguishing features that differentiate them from each other. The first and most recognizable is the horizontal axis windmill, which has propeller blades similar to that of an airplane. The other type of wind power generator is the vertical axis wind turbine that is generally used in residential areas and for personal production of power.

CURRENT AND FUTURE INSTALLATIONS OF WIND ENERGY POTENTIALS

Several investigations have been carried out to assess wind energy potentials across Nigeria in order to identify areas best suited for wind farms. Previous work indicate that there [19, 4] are wind speed variations across Nigeria,[19, 4] and that the variations show [3,] that wind speeds are found to be higher in some parts of northern Nigeria compared to the other part of the country (seeFigure7).Specifically, investigation made by Ojosu and Salawu [19] reported that Sokoto state in the northern part of Nigeria has thehighestaveragewindspeedofabout5.12m/s annually.

It has been suggested by different authors [18, 22] suggested that wind potentials in Nigeria are adequate for wind power integration to the national grid. In addition, the research carried out by the Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN)[22]shows that it is possible to integrate wind farms at the distribution end of the national grid. Another study was reported by the African Development Bank (ADB) in 2004; to Longitude 2.72?—¦ E and 14.64?—¦ E with a total area of 923,768 km2 evaluate the wind energy potential in 14 selected states in Nigeria. The study concluded that by just considering only1% of land and a capacity factor of 30%, an annual generation more than 50 GWh could be achieved in those states, as demonstrated in Table 5.To date, there are no visible wind powers projects connected to the grid. On top of that, currently in Nigeria, there is no sound and working policy those private institutions can rely on to enhance the sector.

Energy Policy in Nigeria

Agreeably, there is a power crisis in the country and the frequent experience of scarcity of refined fossil fuels, has prompted the Nigerian government to pay attention to Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) as alternative sources of generation. In 2015, the National Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Policy (NREEEP) was prepared and approved. In addition, in compliance with the ECOWAS Renewable Energy Policy (EREP), the National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) was approved in the year 2016.

The Nigerian government has already developed a policy for wind energy utilization under the National Energy Master Plan. The policy states that the country shall promote its wind power resources for integration into a balanced energy mix. No effort should be spared to harness this power at an affordable cost, especially to rural settlers. Specifically, the policy outlines the following objectives:

Promoting research and development in wind energy: The government should embark on high impact energy research and development activities by setting up research institutions relating to wind power technologies.
Developing and deploying skilled manpower to ensure local production of wind turbines
Intensifying efforts to ensure the acquisition and development of wind maps:the government shall establish more metrological centers for a regular acquisition of data relating to wind speed characteristics.
Training skilled local technicians for effective and efficient operation and maintenance of wind energy system. The government shall train experts on installations, utilization and maintenance of energy systems.
Providing appropriate incentives for developers and producers of wind power systems: The Government shall provide fiscal incentives, such as suspension of import duty, tax holiday, investment grants, operational grants, etc., to encourage local production of wind energy systems.
Developingextensionprogramtospeedupthegeneralapplicationofwindenergytechnology:

The government shall conduct public enlightenment through workshops, seminars and lectures. The government shall also design and sponsor any publicity through print and electronic media.

Nigeria has already developed RE policy (wind energy inclusive). The ECN through the SERC has been empowered by the Nigerian government to carry out research and development related to wind energy. Several issues hinder the development of wind energy in Nigeria. These include inadequate funding for wind projects; lack of sufficient budget for research; specialized training of technical personnel is required; the current development is insignificant; and the lack of technical knowledge discourages the private sector from investing in new projects [23].

ECONOMIC VIABILITY AND COST PROJECTION OF WIND ENERGY

Based on the wind data information from 1951 to 1960 and from twelve meteorological stations, Fagbenle et al., (1980) reported that average wind speed across Nigeria is about 3 m/s .Also, they concluded that speeds of wind are generally higher in the northern part of the country than the southern part with the highest wind speed of about 3.6 m/s recorded in the Jos area. In addition, a third degree polynomial expression for power density (W/m2) formula for Nigeria was developed as a function of average wind speed across these meteorological stations: where P is the power (W), A is the rotor swept area (m2) and U is the average wind speed (m/s). Ojosu and Salawu (1990a) reported wind speed data from 1951-1975 from 22 stations across the country and they concluded that Sokoto area (in northern part) have highest wind speed of about 5.12 m/s in June and annual average of 3.92 m/s.

Furthermore, they reported wind speed of about 2 m/s or less in the middle and southern areas. Further study by these authors (1990b) that was b classified wind speeds across Nigeria into four different regimes: 1.0-2.0 m/s (e.g. Oshogbo, Minna and Yola), 2.1- 3.0 m/s (e.g. Lagos, Makurdi and Port Harcourt), 3.1-4.0 m/s (e.g. Enugu, Kano, Maiduguri) and > 4.1 m/s (e.g. Jos, Nguru, Sokoto). These wind regimes are shown in Figure1. In general, the findings of Ojosu and Salawu (1990a, b) are similar to that of Fagbenle et al., (1980) used on another set of wind speed data (1968-1983).

Therefore in regions with a high average wind speeds, the total costs of wind power generation are significantly less.75-80% of these costs are upfront costs of physical capital and installation [6]. The remaining costs are dispersed over the life of the wind power system and are comprised of operating, maintenance, and insurances costs [16]. Although the wind power generation is financially competitive with grid extension and diesel generators in most regions, the costs are declining. One paper estimates the effects of the experience curve in Nigeria to reduce the costs of windpower between 9% and 17% every time the installed capacity doubles.

Cost Projection: larger systems range from 4 to 8 kilowatts with towers up to 100 feet tall. These will generally produce enough electricity to completely satisfy the needs of most homes with average energy efficiency [6]. This may cost between 22000 to 50000 dollars [6]. A 10 kilowatt system may go for 80000 to 120000 dollars []. This is a very substantial wind turbine system requiring a 90- to 120-foot tower [6, 16].

CONCLUSION

This term paper has succinctly evaluated the viability of wind renewable energy.Several data have established the dependent of wind energy on the average wind speed obtainable in a particular environment where it is to be used. The economic viability of such is solely dependent on the consistency and characteristics of the wind speed as shown in different works and data.

In view of the enormous amount of money that has gone than the drain in fixing our power sector with little or nothing to show for it, it is high time to massively deploy the nation's attention and resources to wind energy generation as a viable alternative and complementing source of electricity across the country. Erratic supply of electricity in Nigeria and the near non-existence of power supply in the rural centers could be tackled headlong if the government and all stake holders will consider the viability of wind energy. Our population is a pointer for the need to launch out into annexing the gift of nature like other nations of the world to solve the energy problems and improve power generation. For this reason, renewable energy source like wind cannot be neglected and as such, wind turbine technology should be enhanced.

The country urgently needs to maximize the energy mix, mixing the available renewable energy with the non-renewable fossil fuel. This can be done by developing capacities and infrastructural facilities for harvesting wind energy for power generation from sites within regions with high wind capacity to drive turbines for electricity generation across the rural areas and throughout the breathe and length of our great country, Nigeria.

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Analysis of Wind Energy

The advancement in technology which led to industrialization over the last century has resulted in geometric increase in population. Breakthrough in the field of medicine and other technologies subsequently improved fertility, rise in life expectancy and rise in standard of living. The baby boom era saw an unprecedented rise in population from 2.1 billion to over 6.5 billion and the population is expected to rise to about 9 billion people by year 2050 (United nations,2006).

This increase in population has led to increase in demand for energy. This has resulted in the burning of more fossil fuels which has raised lots of concerns. The first concern being the question of sustainability due to fossil fuel being non-renewable and the second being the issue of global warming.

With population set to be on the rise, demand for electricity and other energy sources is bound to increase, more cars begin to ply our roads as more people need to move from one place to the other. These means the rate at which we consume fossil fuel increases as well. This increases the fear of running out of fossil fuel someday questions the sustainability of fossil fuel.

The bye products of combusting fossil fuel has also been having derogatory effects on our environment. The release of Carbon monoxide into the atmosphere has contributed to the increase in greenhouse gases. This has resulted in an increase in the average temperature of the earth surface and subsequently contributed to the climate change we are experiencing.

Renewable energy sources has been identified as the solution to these problems. Renewable energy sources include solar energy, wind energy, biomass, geothermal energy, hydroelectric power among others. All these sources are renewable and at no risk of running out. Also, unlike fossil fuel, they are environmentally friendly as they contribute little or nothing to the greenhouse gases. According to the U.S. Energy Information and Administration, Renewable energy accounted for 12.7 percent of the total primary energy production in 2017. About 77.6 percent came from fossil fuel (2018).

However, renewable energies have various limitations which affects their contribution to energy production. Among these limitations are technological limitations, economic limitations and environmental limitations. In this paper, the limitations of Wind energy will be discussed and probable solutions will be proposed.

WIND ENERGY
Wind energy is the kinetic energy due to airflow. This airflow is a result of the uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun. The difference in the rate causes the movement of air, as the hot air rises and the cold air goes opposite way in other to reach an equilibrium. The energy in the wind is harnessed by using a Wind Turbine which captures the kinetic energy in the wind. The kinetic energy in the wind causes the blades of the turbine to rotate here by creating a mechanical energy which turns a shaft connected to a gear box. Depending on the gearbox configuration, the speed of rotation of the shaft is multiplied by a factor of 100 or more which in turn drives a generator that produces electricity.

Since the Energy crises in 1973, Wind energy has been identified as one of the economically viable renewable energy. Countries like Denmark, Sweden, China, and USA among others have invested heavily in the technology that converts wind energy to electrical energy. This has reduced the cost of per Kw hour of electricity generated by wind by about 80%. However, electricity from wind energy is still more costly than energy generated by fossil fuel. This is due to the high cost of setting up a wind farm as well as running cost. Wind turbines have potential for high efficiency , low operating costs , zero carbon dioxide emission and it only takes the wind turbine about 25 percent of its age to break even and produce the energy that goes into producing, operating and recycling the it (Rose mary P.J, 2014). There are a few things that can be done to reduce the cost of per KW of electricity generated from wind energy. We can improve the technology to produce more electricity at the same cost or reduced cost by trying to eliminate exergy destruction in the system. We can also make policies that help to reduce the running cost of wind turbines. Policies such as reduced tax and incentives for investing in wind turbines.

ECONOMICS OF WIND ENERGY

The cost of wind energy per KW hour depends on lots of factors ranging from wind speed, location, type of wind turbine. A study done by Raghed showed that the cost of electricity generated in wind power mainly depends on capital and investment cost, operation and maintenance cost and fuel cost. A closer look into the cost of electricity per KW hour in wind energy shows that the cost depends on other things such as the economic depreciation of the capital equipment, interest paid on initial loans, taxes, government incentives and tax credits, electricity bills while on standby, wind speed among others (Ragheb, 2017). This factors vary from location to location. The cost of leasing land for wind farms in the Middle West is less than the cost of leasing the same land mass in the north east coast or in southern states like Texas or California. However the wind speed is more favorable in the Midwestern states than the North east coast and the aforementioned southern states. Other factors that contribute to the cost of wind energy per KW hour is the type of turbine. Different turbines have different efficiencies at different wind speeds. The height of the hub and the diameter of the wind turbines also play a key role in the output of the wind turbine (Rose, 2014). Due to all these factors, it is difficult to specifically pinpoint a particular cost for wind energy as these factors vary from one location to another but one fact that has been ascertained is that the cost of electricity generated per KW hour from wind energy is more than that generated from fossil fuels hereby making it less competitive in the market.
However, there are various policies that has been implemented to offset some of these costs, hence making wind energy more profitable for investors. Federal policies like the Production Tax Credit (PTC), Renewable Energy Production Incentive (REPI), and Modified Accelerated Cost-Recovery System (MACRS) among others have been initiated over the years. This has resulted in increase in the installed capacity of the wind power. It was recorded that the installed capacity grew by about 35% in 2005 when the PTC was reinstated after the PTC expired in 2004 (Ragheb, 2017). The policies discussed above has encouraged investors to invest in renewable energy but there has not really being a federal move to reduce dependency on cheaper fossil fuel. Elisabeth Rosenthal in an article for the New York Times in 2010 wrote that If the United States is to catch up to countries like Portugal, the United States must overcome obstacles like a fragmented, outdated energy grid poorly suited to renewable energy, a historic reliance on plentiful and cheap supplies of fossil fuels, especially coal, powerful oil and coal industries that often oppose incentives for renewable development and an energy policy that is influenced by individual states. The federal government must improve the energy grids to be more renewable energy friendly to reduce the cost of transporting the energy. The federal government should also reduce the incentives on electricity from fossil fuel and allocate more of the funds to renewable energy.

EXERGY ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE

Exergy is the useful energy in a system. It is the energy available for useful work. It can be referred to as the dollars in a generating plant as it is the energy available for sale. Although the wind power energy has been ascertained to have high efficiency potentials, the wind turbine can only harvest a small portion of the kinetic energy in the wind. To increase the quantity of energy resources harvested from the wind, a set of turbines which forms a wind farm are strategically located on a field. The set of turbines are connected to a grid to transport the energy to distribution centers. The performance of the wind farm depends on wind speed, wake effects which depends on the spacing between the turbines as well as the topography of the field. In other to maximize the efficiency of the wind farm hereby optimizing power production, the turbines must be positioned at a distance from each other. This distance must be sufficient for the wake effects to diminish and the wind to recover from the energy harvested from it by the turbine ahead of it (Hui, 2015).

For individual wind turbines, the exergy efficiency is a measure of how well the stream exergy of the wind is converted into useful turbine work output which is converted to electricity or used to do work. (ozgener and ozgener, 2006, Reynaga et al, 2017). The input exergy of a wind turbine is dependent on the mass of air causing the blades to rotate. Exergy depends on the dead state and the only difference between the wind at a point and dead state is the velocity it possesses when it is not in dead state. This velocity gives it its kinetic energy which can be converted to useful work by the wind turbine. Irrespective of the temperature and pressure, the energy input of the wind turbine is dependent on the velocity of the wind (Ozgener and Ozgener, 2006). The maximum amount of power available to the wind turbine is equal to the product of the mass flow rate of the air and the specific exergy of the air. The output exergy is equal to the exergy available at the inverter. The exergy destruction is the difference between the output exergy and the input exergy. Sources of exergy destruction in the wind turbine includes heat, friction and noise. And these losses occur during the mechanical (shaft speed multiplication and braking) and electrical (generators) activities of the wind turbine.

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About Beethoven

Beethoven was a variety famous for his music. He was born the 1770's and sadly died in the 1827's. Beethoven started losing his hearing in the 1762's but in the 1798's he lost 60% of his hearing but no one ever knows how beethoven lost his hearing it was unknown. Beethoven was part of a music family so that what inspired him to become a magician and be really good at reading. He also very good at the modern piano bear that imprint a demand more resonant and flexible music instruments. Professional orcherset in a large measurement as a vehicle for a incessant of the performance of Beethoven. Art of conducting to emerge for his wake. Beethoven full name is Ludwig Van Beethoven. When Beethoven went deaf it affected his social life and is personality. When Beethoven made his last piece of music people were amazed and really appreciated him because they never seen or heard anything like it. When Beethoven was having a really hard time with his music he was so frustrated and actually attempted to commit suicide. Vienna help Beethoven with his music by helping him study it and get better at music. When Beethoven was eight he study the music piano keyboard theory. He received many piano lesson so he could become better and good at piano. Beethoven study music mostly his hold entire life and that why he was such a good magician because since he study it he got even better each time. In 1794 Beethoven began his career and took any avandected he could to become a good and successful magicians. Beethoven even had a famous movie called Lives Upstairs. In 1811 Beethoven gave up his performance because he wanted to be perfect and really good for the audience. Beethoven also was learn the violin. Beethoven love was hampare because of some class issues. Beethoven simulated and battle himself to write his music. Beethoven made many public performances of his music and mostly always the audience enjoy and really like his music. Beethoven did three period of music. Once Beethoven performed at a musume. When he perform the symphony charity that include chords. There was ninety eight tahe leave and remain fifty nine. Beethoven struggle with his worker because he had a very hard time teaching them. Beethoven wanted the people who was performing his music to be perfect or he would not perform it. Beethoven was the type of person who would push himself into new music to be a better magician. Beethoven love the fact of great success in his life. Usesly Beethoven would sketch his music notes on a piece of paper and played it to see if he like the way it sounded. Beethoven was like a musical instrument. Beethoven honestly hated giving piano lessons to student and anyone else because he only wanted talented student or attractive women in his piano lessons. Most people admire Beethoven as a genius. Sadly Beethoven died later in the 1827 by a thunder store.

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Ludwig Van Beethoven and a Music in his Life

Ludwig Van Beethoven appreciated music at an early age. On Spring 26th, 1778, at 7 years old and a half Beethoven gave his first open execution at Cologne. The melodic and instructing abilities educated to Ludwig from his dad were exceptionally constrained. Before long Ludwig learned music, principally the organ and by understood performers, for example, Gottlob Neefe. Neefe perceived how astonishing Beethoven's gifts were, and in addition to the fact that Neefe taught him music, he ensured Beethoven thought about crafted by a thinker, and antiquated and current, referred to Beethoven also. In 1782, preceding he turned 12, Ludwig distributed his first bit of music, which was ''9 Varieties in C minor for piano'' on a walk by Earnst Christoph Dressler. The next year in 1783, Neefe compose an article in the "Magazine of Music" were he expounded on his gifted understudy Ludwig Van Beethoven where he stated, "On the off chance that he proceeds with like this, there will be no uncertainty that he will be the following Mozart".In June 1784, on Neefe's suggestions, Ludwig Van Beethoven was selected organist of the court of Maximilian Franz, the Voter of Cologne. Beethoven was 14 years of age. This let him be in successive new groups of friends, other than his dad and family. Prince Maximillian Franz was additionally mindful of Beethoven's music thus he sent Beethoven to Vienna, in 1787, to meet Mozart and further his melodic training. Vienna was, all things considered, the capital city as far as culture and music. A letter got back to Beethoven to Bonn, his mom was kicking the bucket. The main individual in his family with whom he had built up a solid and adoring association with, passed away on July seventeenth, 1787. After five years, in 1792, Ludwig Van Beethoven returned to Vienna, profiting from another give, for a long time, by the Ruler Balloter, again to seek after his melodic training. He never returned to the town of his introduction to the world. At Vienna, the youthful artist took exercises with Haydyn, at that point with Albrechtsberger and Salieri. He caught the consideration of and surprised Vienna with his virtuosity and his spontaneous creations on piano. In 1794, Beethoven formed Creation 1, the "Trios for Piano". The next year, Ludwig Van Beethoven made his first open execution at Vienna (an "Institute"). Where every artist played his own work. At that point pursued a visit: Prague, Dresden, Leipzig, and Berlin, before leaving for a show in Budapest. Beethoven made various associates at Vienna. Everyone in the melodic and blue-blooded world respected the youthful writer. These music-sweethearts were Beethoven's most noteworthy supporters. He ended up irate routinely with some of them, regularly making fair changes soon a short time later. His ability pardoned his exorbitant, imprudent conduct. In 1800, Beethoven sorted out another show in Vienna including, strikingly, the introduction of his first orchestra. Albeit today we discover this work established, and near crafted by Mozart and Haydn, at the time certain audience members found the orchestra unusual, excessively extreme, and even suggestive'. This virtuoso, Beethoven, who was as yet a youthful, new arranger, was at that point pushing the built up limits of music. Unfortunately, in 1801 Beethoven admitted to his companions at Bonn that he was apprehensive he was gradually going hard of hearing. At Heiligenstadt in 1802 he composed an acclaimed content communicating his disturb at the injustice of life: that he, an artist, could wind up hard of hearing was something he would not like to survive. Notwithstanding, music made him continue and he composed that he realized that despite everything he had numerous other melodic areas to investigate, find, and to pass on. Beethoven composed his third orchestra to pay tribute to an extraordinary man, Bonaparte. He was viewed as the emancipator of the general population, opening a way to trust amid the French Transformation. At the point when the Principal Emissary announced himself Sovereign, Beethoven wound up incensed and glowered out Bonaparte's name from the score. On April seventh, 1805, the Eroica ensemble was played out of the blue. In the mean time, Beethoven had at long last completed his musical show, Leonore, the main musical drama he composed. He composed and revamped four distinct suggestions. The name of the musical drama, hence, changed to Fidelio, against the desires of the writer. November twentieth, 1805 was the date of the opening execution before a little gathering of people of French officers. This was on the grounds that Napoleon, leader of the military, had caught Vienna out of the blue. This happened again in 1809. Beethoven has performed a lot more exhibitions. In 1826, Beethoven discovered a chilly returning from his sibling's place, with whom he had contended once more. The disease confused other medical issues that Beethoven had experienced for his entire life. He passed away encompassed by his dearest companions on Spring 26th, 1827, similarly as a tempest broke out. The memorial service customs occurred at the congregation of the Sacred Trinity. It is evaluated that somewhere in the range of 10,000 and 30,000 individuals visited. Franz Schubert, hesitant and a colossal admirer of Beethoven, while never having turned out to be near him, was one of the pine box bearers, alongside different artists. Schubert passed on the following year and was covered alongside Beethoven.

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How Much do you Know about Beethoven?

We all know that Ludwig Van Beethoven was a musical composer but:

Did you know when he was born?
Did you know who his parents were or how they were raised?
Do you know how his parents treated him or his siblings?
Was Ludwig Van Beparent's's parents' families poor or were their families wealthy?
Do you know about his family life, his siblings? How many sisters did he have?
How many brothers did he have?
Do you know about his childhood?
How did people react to his music, and how do they react today?
Do you know how Ludwig Van Beethoven himself affected the music industry we still have today?
Well this article will tell you about all of his life.

Ludwig Van Beethoven was born in December of 1770, the date is unknown. Ludwig was born in Bonn, Germany. His nationalities were Prussian, Austrian, and German. His mother was Maria Magdalena Keverich and his father was Johann Van Beethoven, they were both German. His mother's family was wealthy due to her father being the chief of the court. His father, Johann Van Beethoven was a German musician, a teacher, and a singer so his father made some pretty good money. Ludwig's family was considered wealthy. Ludwig Van Beethoven never married and he never had children.

How did people react to Ludwig Beethoven's music?

People loved his music, they compared him to Bach and Mozart. His music was known for the length of his music in all genres he did. His innovations were more classical and romantic than anything else. He was a huge role in classical music transitioning into the romantic music era. People today don't listen to classical now of days, people listen to rap and hip-hop, but without people like Beethoven and Bach, the music we have now may not even be here. However, people still like classical thought and Ludwig Van Beethoven comes up.

How has Ludwig Van Beethoven impacted the music industry we have today?

Ludwig Van Beethoven is the most responsible for how music is today. He changed the length of his music which ended up being the model for how long others made their music as well. He was also one of the most known when the music era changed from the classical to the romantic, he was one of the most known composers for both genres. Every music composer at least listened to his songs once, and he is a model for them as well. Every music composer has been influenced by his symphonies since they were written.

How many siblings did Ludwig Van Beethoven have?

Ludwig had seven siblings. He had four brothers and he had three sisters. His three brothers were Kaspar Anton Karl Van Beethoven, Nikolaus Johann Van Beethoven, Johann Peter Anton Leym, and Franz Georg Van Beethoven. His sisters were Maria Margarita Van Beethoven, Anna Maria Francisca Van Beethoven, and Ludwig Maria Van Beethoven.

Did Beethoven have children?

No, he did not have children himself but he treated his nephew Karl like his son and did a lot of things with him.

Ludwig Van Beethoven was a German composer, who never got married and never had children, but he was close with his nephew and treated him like a son. Ludwig Van Beethoven lived a good life, his parents lived a wealthy life and continued it throughout their family, and his parents weren't abusive and very supportive meaning that Ludwig and his siblings lived a pretty good childhood. His father was into music himself and this was a reason that Ludwig had an interest in being a music composer. Ludwig Van Beethoven took music more seriously and made composing music his life and career. He was also extremely successful in the music industry, he was one of the most famous people from the classical era to the romantic era. Ludwig has also changed the music industry in a great way, he started the trend of making longer songs and he was also a big influence on the change from classical to romantic music. He is still considered one of the best in the music industry and one of the biggest reasons for the music industry we have today.

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Asthma in Pediatric Patients

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Tertiary Prevention Program for Asthma

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About Wind Energy

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Viability of Wind Energy Generation in Nigeria

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Analysis of Wind Energy

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About Beethoven

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Ludwig Van Beethoven and a Music in his Life

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How Much do you Know about Beethoven?

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