Month: August 2019
What Effect does Sleep Deprivation have on Physiological and Cognition?
Abstract
The National Sleep Foundation's Annual Sleep in America poll of 2018 showed that only ten percent of Americans rates sleep as a top priority. With all the literature that is taught about how vital sleep is to one's health, these results were shocking. Sleep is an essential physiological need for survival. To be deprived of sleep has many unwanted effects on the body. Total sleep deprivation has been shown to negatively affect many physiological, cognitive, and behavioral measures within the body (Miro et. al. 2002). Studies have shown that sleep deprivation can cause damage to brain cells, impair immune response, affect short term and long-term memory, restrict learning, and most of all decrease cognitive performance. In research a distinction between total and partial sleep deprivation is important to adequately consider the effects of sleep loss. Sleep deprivation is a study design to assess the effects of sleep loss. Total sleep deprivation is more thoroughly examined even though partial sleep deprivation is more commonly experienced. Although there are vast studies and a profound amount of research on the effects of sleep deprivation, there are still many unanswered questions. The discrepancies in the studies account for age, gender, the type of sleep deprivation that is being tested, the allotted time of sleep, and the individual. Despite the discrepancies shown in various research, it is known knowledge that sleep deprivation has several effects on physiological and cognitive performance.
Introduction
A person's daily performance can be heavily influenced by the lack of sleep. Sleep is becoming more of a cliche in today's society. A new saying has been adopted that states I'll sleep when I die. Sleep loss is one of the most important yet underestimated causes of disruption in a person's quality of life. Sleep is essential to the body and brain. It was proposed that sleep detoxifies the brain, controls thermoregulation, and conserves energy (Maquet 2001). When being researched it is common to find sleep deprivation broken into two separate categories. Total sleep deprivation refers to the avoidance of sleep for a period of at least twenty-four hours or greater. Then you have partial sleep deprivation in which the usual number of hours one sleeps is reduced within the twenty-four-hour period. Sleep from a physiological perspective was first examined by a French Scientist name Henri Pieron. Then in the 1920's, Dr. Nathaniel Klietman began questioning the regulation of sleep, wakefulness, and circadian rhythms. The main symptoms of sleep loss are excessive daytime sleepiness, depressed mood, poor memory, and/or concentration (Dinges et al., 2005). Major research has been explored for decades on the cognitive effects of sleep deprivation (Maquet 2002; Stickgold 2005) and the importance of sleep to body restitution (Maquet 2001). Although many variables and more accurate research methods are being used to see just how sleep really affects physiological health, there are still many unanswered questions regarding the exact amount one needs to sleep and the type of sleep that is needed to remain healthy. Each of these studies are contributing greatly to catch the world's view on just how vital sleep is. This paper will address the literature as such from various studies showing how sleep loss negatively impacts the physiological, cognitive, and behavioral measures within the body.
Sleep and Sleep Deprivation
Several studies suggest that the average amount of hours needed are between seven and eight a day (Kripke et al 2002; Kronholm et al 2006). However, the need for sleep varies depending on the individual. Homeostatic process S and circadian process C are the two processes that regulates sleep. The circadian process C affects the thresholds for the onset and offset of a sleep episode. The homeostatic process S revolves around the sleep and wakefulness. The two processes determine the sleep/wake cycle and can be used to describe the fluctuations in alertness and vigilance (eg, Achermann 2004). The process has now been revised and is used as the principal study in sleep deprivation. This sums up the background and characteristics of sleep and sleep loss.
The effects of sleep deprivation are innumerable. For this reason, focus will be given to the effects on the immune system, the Prefrontal Cortex of the brain, short term memory, long term memory, and brain cells. As the body rest, it replenishes itself and fights off any threats. They fighting system is referred to as the immune system response. The immune system response is regulated by three physiological events. The three events are wakefulness, non-rapid eye movement, and rapid eye movement (Nayyab et.al. 2017). The association between the immune system and sleep came about in the 1970's. Immunoregulatory cytokine is a key player in sleep regulation and has levels associated with sleep propensity in the brain (Krueger 2008). This showed that sleep regulated cytokines effect the immune system. The body has to rest in order to remain healthy to perform physically and mentally.
Brains that are sleep deprived have to work harder to perform which affects the PFC of the brain. Brain imaging studies show this to be true by showing the brains of the sleep deprived hysterically pumping energy into the prefrontal cortex to overcome the lack of sleep. In addition, neuroimaging studies have found that after one night of sleep deprivation the blood flow to the prefrontal cortex is profoundly affected (Drummond 1999). The prefrontal cortex is responsible for executive functions of the brain which include: decision-making skills, self-observation, prioritizing, and planning. The prefrontal cortex leads us into short term and long-term memory. As the tasks performed intertwine as basic cognitive capacities.
People who experience sleep loss usually experience a decline in cognitive performance and changes in mood (Philibert 2005). The most thoroughly evaluated cognitive performance measured in sleep deprivations include attentional functions, working memory, and long-term memory. Sleep deprivation impairs visual short-term memory and limits its capacity. A fMRI study done showed declines in behavioral performance and reductions in parietal and extrastriatal activation after sleep loss (Chee 2007). Moreover, according to (Chee 2008) attention lapse following sleep loss showed reduced activation in the visual sensory cortex and thalamus.
Sleep deprivation limits the capacity to retain new experiences to memory. Research showed that a lack of sleep compromises the neural and behavioral capacity for retaining new experiences to long-term memory (Yoo,Gujar, Hu, Jolesz, & Walker 2007). These same findings support the hypothesis that lower brain areas involved in arousal, attentional functions, and sensory/perceptual gating contribute to impairments in memory following sleep deprivation. Sustained attention is referred to as vigilance throughout this paper. As stated before, although many studies show the negative effects of sleep deprivation there are still many unanswered questions about sleep.
Discrepancies and Common bias
Most hypothesis of these studies have received major support. Sleep deprivations usually focus on proving one of two hypotheses. According to (Alhola et al 2005) these two hypotheses are: general effects on alertness and attention, and/or selective effects on certain brain structures and functions. The hypothesis was supported but there was limitations and some studies that showed no effects of sleep deviations within a twenty-four-hour period. The differences in age and gender of participants, as well as the duration of sleep duration, complicated the comparison of the results. Studies show that older participants functioned better than younger participants. In aging the accumulation of sleep pressure seems to be reduced during wakefulness (Murillo-Rodriguez et al 2004), which could account for older adults performing better despite lack of sleep. Some Sleep deprivations studies have found impairment only in performance speed, whereas accuracy has remained intact (De Gennaro et al 200; Chee and Choo 2004). In others, the results are the opposite (Kim et al 2001; Gosselin et al 2005). In addition, comparing the effects of partial sleep deprivation and total sleep deprivation based on existing literature has proven difficult. For this reason, only one study used a control to show a decline in cognitive performance using both types of sleep deviations (Van Dongen et al 2003). According to (Alhola and Paivi 2007), methodological shortcomings are to blame for the common biases such as inadequate descriptions of protocols, failure to control the practice effect, individual sleep history or napping during the studies, and insensitive cognitive measures. All in all, most studies evaluated proved the hypothesis to be true that sleep deprivation does have an effect on physiological and cognitive performance.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the reviewed literature showed that there is so much to learn and become acquainted with about sleep. While some studies may not have shown any deviation within a twenty-four-hour period, others showed that over time the lack of sleeping hours in a day adds up over a brief time to cause an adverse effect. These sleep studies are shedding light on just how important sleep is to performance and health. More studies are needed and needs to be mainstream. There are so many important people working in a field that requires some type of sleep deprivation. Sleep studies also need to find some type of control in the homes or spaces in which one can truly show just how they sleep. While the literature showed the many effects of the brain and body, it also shed light on just how much research is needed to be readily present for the world.
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What Effect Does Sleep Deprivation Have on Physiological and Cognition?. (2019, Aug 12).
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Rap Hip Hop’s Effects on Black America Via Social Aspects Attitudes
African Americans as a culture are under constant attack socially, intellectually and racially and in today's world this is supported primarily by how the mainstream media portrays present day rap/hip-hop, by giving it a bad name whilst telling john public that a certain stereotype is okay. By doing this the media has become complicit in the castration and twisting of the voices of black America and this only aide's commercialism and tricks the younger generation into seeing consumerism as an act of rebellion. The history of hip hop & rap music is closely linked to the political issues & the culture of black people. This music was needed to fuel the fight during the Civil Rights Movement and was supposed to be that next step in the transformation and transition of black people from slavery to freedom. Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America, (1994) a book written by Tricia Rose project discusses how rap music has taken a turn for the worse and how the black community has easily followed the same path. Rose discusses the evolution & plight of the black man in American History, Social conditions, Intellectual life, Race identity and Rap (Music) History and criticism. Rose argues that the original intended message of rap & hip hop has changed and in its present form seems to be in a fight with its self. On one hand fighting for a cause and on the other hand destroying the identity of women and other classes of people who are under attack by society. The topics discussed are sure to appeal to the black community, women and persons who seek to have an equal footing for all people in the African American community at home and abroad. I will analyze the authors argument that African Americans suffer from effects of stereotypes & social injustices & this has caused a deterioration of the political and social conditions because of rap & hip hop and what we can do to change the perceptions and habits. present research documents argument, claims, audience, purpose, and how these things support the argument along with the use of evidence.
Rose begins by discussing the origins of rap & hip-hop music and she touches on the business aspect of and rap and how the media focusses on the illegal sampling of other music to make rap music. Rose highlights the role that rap music, dancing & graffiti played in its development and illustrates how cultural ignorance has led to the moral break down in society. Rap deals with complex issues that relate to social, cultural and political matters. Caughy, M. O. in the book. The Influence of Racial Socialization Practices on the Cognitive and Behavioral Competence of African American Preschoolers. Caughy surmised that a child's development as it relates to being brought up in poverty and the effects of living a community setting affected by the processes that derive from poverty (1). This correlates to what Rose is saying in terms of how important re-education in fixing the present issues that exist in the black community. Rose discusses songs from various artist that attempted to speak to the social ills of rap music. Asante writes artist like KRS Ones, who proclaimed: To crush the stereotype here's what we did/ We got ourselves together/So that you could unite and fight for what's right. (p10). Despite rap's suppression it continued to thrive & welcomed artist who had little guidance and the results of this lack of guidance showed how modern rap/hip-hop has descended & now caters to the lowest common denominator because the values and ideals of the new up and coming artist has been already tainted and the list of positive artists is small, and they all regurgitate the same negative messaging instead of using hip-hop as the culture expression it was intended to be. Rap & hop hop seldom showcase positive messaging because it has lost its initial mandate which is to speak on social & economic issues that affect today's society. If we turn on any tv today we can see movies & music that depict persons of my color in a basic stereotype, either they are killing each other having sex with multiple partners or doing drugs.
Misogyny and black on black violence in rap/hip-hop and its negative impact is affecting how black people view themselves and this is causing the erosion of the black community. Author Belgrave, Faye Z., in the book. The Influence of an Afrocentric Worldview and Demographic Variables on Drug Knowledge, Attitudes, and Use among African American Youth. (3) addresses similar ideas when she stated, "The negative consequences of drug us, abuse, and activity are many" (p2). Belgrave blames school drop-out, crime and incarceration, teen pregnancy, HIV and sexually transmitted diseases on drugs & the pervasive culture exist in the African American society due to a lack of economic prosperity, and education.
Rose asserts and connects with Belgrave about African Americans and the deterioration of the political and social conditions due to the effects of rap & hip hop and what we can do to change the perceptions and habits. As Asante stated "With its sands scattered to the winds of the world hip hop joins scores of other vibrations that were born in the Black community. "and that other countries have adopted hip hop outside of U.S. Therefore, hip hop if changed in its homeland can have a ripple effect and change the overall culture that has been attached to it. The up and coming artist if educated and paid appropriately will reflect the values of traditional Rap & Hip Hop. If we change our songs and ignore the stereotypes the media would soon follow. Educations about where the music came from and where its going and adequately paying artist would make them less of victims to the cooperate big wigs. Asante questions the purpose and the motives of the record companies and how hip-hop music impacts their bottom line and not necessarily the artist. Asante compares The Hip-Hop Generation & Post Hip-Hop Generation explaining the differences between them pointing out how commercialism and consumption has played a massive part in the deconstruction of hip hop, defining how Hip-Hop has betrayed itself by not being used as a tool for rebelling or standing up for what's right.
Rose asserts that the lack of emcees and influential people to disseminate the positive cultural expression of black America has contributed to a fall in the quality of music and a directional shift of the music. Asante writes that these emcees are vital to the future of rap & hip-hop music because they in the past they were the guardians of the music and reflected the values of traditional rap & hip hop (p7). The true meaning or actions of Post-Hip-Hop has encompassed the present generations current day struggles along with hip hop's past struggles, but the lines of battle drawn in the sand has become blurred because many other movements & fights have emerged causing many fights to be fought and no battles to be won. These movements are the women's movement, anti-war movement, gay rights, anti-globalization just to name a few. A civil fight for one of these movements alone could take a lifetime so the idea that cooperating could make things better for all at the same time seems laughable. In effect each will cannibalize each other of resources & man power and The fight would just be A fight. Civil Rights & Equality for Blacks in all aspects of society should stand on its own. Its over 400 years that Africans have been fighting for freedom and equality and the same fight continues. Asante writes that during the Civil Rights Movement black music was called freedom songs. It was even stated that the lyrics were very important, even more so than the music. (p4). Are we doing enough to rebuild our cities in order to stimulate growth and bring back money to the hands of the poor black community? Is the artiste investing in programs that help the young up and coming artist who need to learn the ropes? I think better can be done in respect of the business aspect of rap music, this would undoubtedly allow for the transfer of power of most if not all of what we deem as culture back to the hands of whom it was torn from.
In his review of Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America. author Baker, Houston A., Jr. Supported and extended Rose when he wrote From its first commercial success during the 1970s, rap's powers of persuasion were never in doubt. Its powers of adaptation and global influence, however, have proved both surprising and frustrating to even the most tireless adult detractors of the form. (2)
Rose also spoke about female rappers and how their voices influence rap music. Rose speaks of the marginalization of black women's contribution to rap and the music industry. Rose gave examples of works from artist like Salt 'N' Pepa, Queen Latifah & several other female writers & artist. As Asante stated "With its sands scattered to the winds of the world hip hop joins scores of other vibrations that were born in the Black community. " (p2), other countries have adopted hip hop outside of U.S. Therefore, hip hop if changed in its homeland can have a ripple effect and change the overall culture that has been attached to it. The up and coming artist if educated and paid appropriately will reflect the values of traditional Rap & Hip Hop. If we change our songs and ignore the stereotypes the media would soon follow. Education about where the music came from and where it's going and adequately paying artist would make them less of victims to the cooperate big wigs. Rap shares similar origins of previous black oral music traditions. Rose discusses the study of jazz in the 1920's and how the black culture was being imitated by white entertainers and fans. Asante writes about the adoption of hip-hop outside the U.S signifying that the black art forms are taken by other cultures and races and finds itself appropriated and in some cases misused and misunderstood. (p3). This merger of cultures contributes to the loss of cultural expression and gives way to any influence presented my public or private entities. (p7).
Rose speaks of rappers going unnoticed by the mainstream music industry & the popular cultural industries until the entrepreneur Sylvia Robinson brought attention to the art form. When Hollywood realized rap would be a force in the future everyone jumped on board. Asante questions the purpose and the motives of the record companies and how hip-hop music impacts their bottom line and not necessarily the artist when he says Instead multinational corporations like Viacom, Clear Channel, and Vivendi, through their radio and television outlet, control how most people hear and see hip hop. (p 6). Asante compares The Hip-Hop Generation & Post Hip-Hop Generation explaining the differences between them pointing out how commercialism and consumption has played a massive part in the deconstruction of hip hop, defining how Hip-Hop has betrayed itself by not being used as a tool for rebelling or standing up for what's right. (p10).
When we turn on the radio or look at printed media, we can see images or hear music that encourages us to engage in vulgar & dangerous acts which are not in keeping with who we are. The modern era of rap & hip hop has given way to the systematic destruction of people of color or might I say anyone who looks different from white. The education of people of all colors needs to be reintroduced and revised because at this the only organization that can help this generation reverse the way we think, and act is the media. This topic is still prevalent and is a perfect example of the social ills that exist in society involving brown and black people.
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Rap Hip Hop's Effects on Black America via Social Aspects Attitudes. (2019, Aug 12).
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How the Backout 1977 Effect on Hip Hop
Over the last thirty-seven years Hip Hop has slowly but surely become a staple of American society and has achieved notoriety all over the world. Not only is Hip Hop music consistently one of the highest selling genres of music of any kind on the market today, but Hip Hop as a whole is highly influential in dictating trends of all kinds as well. On a macro level, large corporate entities use Hip Hop as a productive means of product promotion, marketing, and advertising. On a micro level Hip Hop dictates fashion, hairstyle, dialect, car choice, everyday mannerisms, musical preference, and even common greetings. The term Hip Hop itself has almost become a synonym for popular culture. Hip Hop is not a phenomenon. As it enters its fifth decade in existence, it is safe to say that Hip Hop is here to stay. With this in mind, the question becomes what is Hip Hop and where did it come from? The region known as the South Bronx is actually not a specific singular neighborhood but rather it is a group of neighborhoods located in the southwestern portion of New York City's Bronx borough. While there is debate over which neighborhoods exactly constitute the South Bronx, it is clear that sections of the borough such as Hunts Point, Mott Haven, and Port Morris each make up the South Bronx. According to former Bronx Borough President Fernando Ferrer, the term 'the South Bronx' did not exist before the 1960's. He contends that in reality the term was really just an invention, a shorthand way to describe physically decaying neighborhoods, rising crime and rising poverty.
Before the 1960s, the Bronx was divided into the West Bronx and East Bronx. In essence, the term South Bronx originated during the 1960s as a racial construct used to define areas in the southern portion of the borough containing nearly homogeneous populations of low-income African Americans and Latinos. Therefore, most of the borough south of the Cross Bronx Expressway and west of the borough's Castle Hill section is designated as the South Bronx for geographically, socioeconomic, and racial reasons. Virtually all notable Hip Hop scholars recognize that beginning with Sugar Hill Records in late 1979 small independent record companies, some previously in existence and others newly formed, began signing MCs and releasing rap records on vinyl, which allowed audiences outside of the South Bronx to consume Hip Hop as a recorded, tangible commodity for the first time. Most also acknowledge that the culture has become completely commercialized over the years by corporations and used as a marketing tool.
This thesis contends that initial investments in Hip Hop by local New York City and New Jersey based independent record companies and other small corporate entities paved the way for large corporate conglomerates to use Hip Hop for profit as well. Between 1973 and 1979 Hip Hop culture, with the exception of graffiti art, was not visible outside of New York City. DJing, MCing, and breakdancing were restricted to the Bronx and parts of Upper Manhattan. At first, youth in these areas experienced Hip Hop by attending DJs' parties at local Boys and Girls Clubs, school gymnasiums, community centers in public housing projects, and multipurpose rooms in apartment buildings. As Hip Hop expanded, DJs began to perform at outdoor block parties, in parks, and at local nightclubs. According to Hip Hop's first photographer Joe Conzo Jr., during this period the goals of Hip Hop had nothing to do with making money. In fact on a telephone interview from his home, Conzo stated, it was a young group of kids rebelling and playing their mom's records at local jams throughout the desolate South Bronx.17 Michael Holman, creator of the television show Graffiti Rock, a show that got cancelled after one episode, furthers Conzo's claim by contending, Hip Hop was truly a response to these kids being marginalized. It was a way of them saying 'we are not nobodies, we are somebody.' Hip Hop is really 'look at me'.18 Hip Hop was a lifestyle aimed at having fun, garnering respect on the streets, and indulging in inexpensive forms of artistic self-expression. It had no connections to the corporate music industry whatsoever. However, in 1979 this all changed when Sylvia Robinson of Sugar Hill Records conceived the idea of recording MCs' raps and distributing them nationwide as a new genre of popular music.
In order to understand the argument that beginning in 1979 independent record companies, most notably Sugar Hill Records, commodified Hip Hop culture by recording MCs' raps onto 12-inch vinyl records for retail distribution and damaged the culture's authenticity in the process, it is necessary to comprehend the importance of authentic 1970s cultural institutions in the Bronx and Harlem. For example, Hip Hop was born in an apartment building located at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue in the Bronx. The building, which was erected in 1969, served the Bronx community by providing affordable housing to low-income residents and keeping them off the waiting lists for high-rise public housing projects. According to the spokesperson for Save 1520, an organization founded to combat gentrification efforts threatening to make the building's affordable housing status obsolete, throughout the early 1970s 1520 Sedgwick Avenue made it possible for working families like DJ Kool Herc's to thrive and create the communities that gave rise to hip-hop.19 It is clear that this apartment building served a very important purpose to its South Bronx community during the 1970s, a decade in which the Bronx witnessed unparalleled urban decay. 1520 Sedgwick Avenue existed as an authentic Bronx cultural institution by providing both the socioeconomic and physical settings that made Hip Hop's creation possible and by standing as a strong, private-sector affordable housing complex that did not fall victim to arson or condemnation during the most turbulent of years.
In addition, nightclubs and local parks functioned as authentic cultural institutions in the Bronx and Harlem during the mid to late 1970s as well. In 1974, a variety of clubs throughout sections of the Bronx and Harlem began to embrace Hip Hop as a performance art and contracted DJs, most notably Kool Herc, to hold jams in their establishments. In Can't Stop Won't Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation, Jeff Chang describes this process. After becoming well known for his house parties on Sedgwick Avenue and the surrounding neighborhood, Chang writes that local clubs such as Twilight Zone, which was located on Jerome Avenue, and The Hevalo Club often featured DJ Kool Herc and his crew of MCs.20 Soon other local Hip Hop DJs, who had built their reputations up throughout the house party scene in the Bronx as Herc had before them, began spinning at clubs such as Harlem World, Savoy Manor, Your Spot, Plaza Tunnel, and many others.21 These clubs were cultural institutions within their Bronx and Manhattan communities. They provided neighborhood DJs, which were Hip Hop's central figures throughout the 1970s, with a place to hold organized jams, demonstrate their artistic skills, and solidify their reputations within the close-knit Hip Hop community. In order to be allowed to deejay in such a cultural institution, DJs had to be established within the inner circle of the local Hip Hop community. If not, people would not attend the functions. The arduous process of becoming well known and respected as a DJ on the local Bronx house party circuit granted DJs a sense of authenticity. Once established, playing in the clubs gave Bronx DJs a further sense of authenticity, legitimacy, and notoriety within their communities.
Soon, as Chang explains, Hip Hop jams moved to outdoor parks in the South Bronx, most notably Cedar Park, which was located at the corner of Cedar Avenue, Sedgwick Avenue, and West 179th Street. This occurred during the summer months both because of the nice weather and because gangs made club jams unsafe.22 In order to hold a highly attended, successful park jam at a cultural institution such as Cedar Park, DJs had to have a well-established, positive reputation within the South Bronx Hip Hop community. At first, DJ Kool Herc dominated the outdoor jams at Cedar Park because of his impeccably large sound system and status as Hip Hop's founder. However, over time other DJs learned from Herc and began holding large outdoor jams as well. During the mid to late 1970s, the Hip Hop community bestowed authenticity upon DJs based on the size and volume of their sound systems, the rarity of their records and quality of their breaks, and the crowd excitement generated by their MCs. Performing in parks like Cedar Park granted a sense of authenticity to DJs and MCs. These performers' statuses became even more authentic if their jams garnered large crowds, if their parties lasted for long-periods, and if their names were well known throughout the community. This authenticity was central to Hip Hop culture between 1973 and 1979. Without it, it would be nearly impossible to become recognized within the culture.
Before various corporate entities realized the high marketability of Hip Hop, enabled its commercialization, distributed it as a tangible commodity, and transformed it into one of the most popular music genres and forms of entertainment in the world, Hip Hop existed as a localized artistic musical, social, and cultural phenomenon born in the South Bronx and eventually spreading to other areas of New York City. The culture's beginnings date back to 1973 when eighteen year old Jamaican immigrant Clive Campbell, better known as DJ Kool Herc, threw a back to school party for his little sister Cindy in the recreation room of an apartment building located in the far western portion of the South Bronx. As Chang indicates, by the time DJ Kool Herc threw this party he had already been heavily influenced by the sociopolitical and musical cultures of his native Jamaica. He grew up in Jamaica between 1955 and 1967, a period in which the country endured severe political conflict, violence, and unrest. However, through all of this turmoil, music remained a critical part of Jamaican culture. Musicians often threw outdoor parties and concerts where they showed off their tremendous sound systems. These parties gave young people the opportunity to temporarily escape from the violence around them. As a young boy, Clive Campbell witnessed all of the struggles plaguing his native Jamaica and learned from the island's sound system operators and musical traditions.35
An analysis of Chang's arguments makes it is clear that both his experiences as a young boy growing up in an extremely turbulent sociopolitical climate and his exposure to unique Jamaican musical traditions prepared him for life in the South Bronx and enabled him to create an innovative musical culture in his new environment.
On August 11, 1973 DJ Kool Herc created Hip Hop in the recreation room of an apartment building located at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue in the Bronx and deejaying became the first element of Hip Hop culture. DJ Kool Herc moved to the South Bronx in 1967, three years before street gangs composed of misguided, marginalized youth began to terrorize the area, which had already suffered from the effects of deindustrialization, arson, and other socioeconomic and physical ills of urban decay36. These gangs made many aspects of life in the South Bronx difficult for youth, including recreational and social activities. For example, teenagers often frequented disco-oriented clubs throughout the city beginning in the late 1960s. However, according to Hip Hop author and journalist Peter Shapiro, street gangs had a serious, detrimental effect on this club scene after 1970. He argues that gangs made disco clubs intolerable with their menacing presence.37 Discos failed to draw large crowds from the South Bronx and other low-income African American and Latino neighborhoods, not only because many of the teens in the area did not identify with the culture surrounding disco, but more importantly because many of the most prominent clubs' cover charges were too expensive for South Bronx youth to afford.38 It is evident that as of 1973, adolescents and young adults from the area were eager for a new musical culture and affordable recreational activity to embrace. Therefore, when DJ Kool Herc threw his back to school party in August of 1973, a party with cheap admission and no disco music, teenagers from all over the predominantly African American and Latino, low-income sections of South Bronx were excited to attend. They were not disappointed.
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Attention to the Rown Vs. Board of Education
The 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson ruling by the Supreme Court stated that racially segregated public amenities as legal, as long as the facilities for whites and blacks were equivalent. This included racially segregating the public school system. This practice of segregating the schools was upheld until 1954 when the Supreme Court made a tantamount decision. The Justices, in a unanimous decision, stated that racial segregation in the public school system was illegal and unconstitutional. The case that brought this to the Supreme Court's attention was Brown vs. Board of Education. This particular case was a major catalyst for the civil rights movement. It helped to bring about equal education for all and brought to light other services and facilities that were not legal.
The ruling of Plessy vs. Ferguson constitutionally certified laws prohibiting African Americans from sharing the same schools, buses, and other public facilities (Jim Crow Laws), and established the separate but equal policy that stood for the next six decades. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was an organization that was founded in 1909. Their vision was to challenge segregation and make everything equal for all. In the early 1950's, the NAACP diligently worked to challenge the segregation laws in public schools. They had filed lawsuits on behalf of plaintiffs in the states of Virginia, Delaware, and South Carolina.
Oliver Brown, the primary plaintiff in the case, was not happy with the schooling situation for his daughter, Linda Brown. She was denied entry to an all-white elementary school. Mr. Brown, deeming this as unfair and unconstitutional filed a class-action suit against the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1951. In Brown's lawsuit, he claimed that schools for African American children were not like the white schools, and that segregation dishonored the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment, which is that no state can deny any person within the jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. This case went before the United States District Court in Kansas, which they agreed that the public-school segregation had a damaging effect on the colored children.
Brown's and four other cases related to the school segregation first came across the Supreme Court in 1952; the Court combined all of the cases into one case under the name Brown vs. the Board of Education of Topeka. The head of the NAACP's legal defense and Educational Fund, Thurgood Marshall aided as chief attorney for the plaintiffs. Marshall eventually became an Associate Supreme Court Justice in 1967, and presided until 1991. At first, the Justices were split on how to rule on school segregation. Chief Justice Fred Vinson's initial opinion of the case was to uphold the judgment of Plessy vs. Ferguson. The hearing in front of the Supreme Court was scheduled In September 1953. On September 8th, Chief Justice Fred Vinson passed away without ever hearing the arguments. President Dwight Eisenhower replaced Vison with Earl Warren, who was the governor of California at the time.
Warren displayed political skill and determination. He succeeded in procuring a unanimous verdict against school segregation the year following his appointment. In the field of public education, the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place, as segregated schools are inherently unequal (Warren). The Court ruled that the plaintiffs were being deprived of the equal protection of laws that is guaranteed by the 14th amendment. The verdict did not explain how the schools were going to be integrated, but asked for more discussion about it. May 1955, the Supreme Court delivered a second opinion on the case, which soon was known as Brown vs. Board of Education II. This is where the southern states asked to be exempt from the first ruling. In summary, the answer was, No.
Although the Supreme Court's decision did not accomplish school desegregation on their own, the verdict gave motivation for the Nascent Civil Rights Movement in the U.S. A year after the Brown vs. Board of Education decision, Rosa Park refused to give up her seat on the bus in Montgomery, Alabama. Her arrest led to the Montgomery bus boycott, and it led to many other boycotts. It led to the collapsing of Jim Crow laws across the Southern States. 1964 was the passage of the Civil Rights act enforced by the Justice Department, which led to the process of desegregation. Followed by the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and Fair Housing Act of 1968.
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The Climactic Battle of World War Ll
Stephen E. Ambrose was an American historian and biographer that wrote bestselling novels on American military history and on the lives of Nixon and Eisenhower. He originally studied pre-med at the University of Wisconsin then transferred over to study American history at Louisiana State University and earned his M.A. Later, he returned back to Wisconsin to get his Ph.D. Ambrose served several years as a professor at the University of New Orleans spending his time writing over 20 bestselling books. He retired as the founder and director of the Eisenhower Center and the National D-Day Museum in New Orleans.
Ambrose communicates his ideas in his book, D-Day June 6th, 1944: The Climactic Battle of WWll, through drawing on over 1,400 interviews from American, British, French, and German veterans' personal experiences on D-Day. The book begins at midnight on June 6, 1944 when the first American and British airborne troops invade France. Ambrose focuses on the focal 24 hours that made D-Day and moves through the perspectives of a French child, Supreme Commander, American paratrooper, German sergeant, Field Marshal, and General. Through these perspectives, he portrays the ...faces of those that day that demonstrated courage and heroism, fear and determination - that shaped the victory of the citizen soldiers whom Hitler disparaged.
The story opens on June 6th and ends at midnight on the 7th where the reader is left feeling relieved that the future of Europe will see liberation from the Germans. Preceding D-Day, the Germans are both the most and least prepared for the battle. Their biggest crutch being their assumption that the battle will not take place in Normandy. On the other hand, Americans are training vigorously with their newly abundantly supplied weaponry from the rebuilt American industry. They train intensively and proceed to Normandy under Eisenhower's command, despite extreme weather conditions. Paratroopers drop in France overnight and Allied bombers attempt to soften the invasion beaches to no avail. Many miss their targets and arriving troops that day are met with unexpected force. The beaches are lined with mines and barbed wire. Different American sites face different victories and defeats. Gold beach, a British landing sight serves as the most successful invasion. On the German's end the Atlantic Wall is pierced and they lose at having any kind of effective counterattack. Greater mobility, initiative, and limitless weaponry lead the Allies to overall victory on the close of D-Day.
The methodology approach Ambrose took towards this book was to study and give insight to military history. Ambrose's intent according to the American Historical Review was to ...provide a popular, up-to-date version of the invasion and to have it serve as an inspiring reminder of what democracies, when roused, can accomplish. Not only does Ambrose approach the combat side of war. but also the topics and mechanics of war that are rarely discussed. Such as (but not limited to) the role of American women in the factory, the broadcasts of Axis Sally, recognizing African- American role in the invasion, and discussing individual insights at specific locations throughout the battle. His book completely delves into D-Day discussing the ins and outs of the invasion, recognizing the heroes that led the invasion to victory, and bringing to the surface the mechanics that lead the battle to be successful.
Stephen Ambrose's passion for military history and accessibility to the Eisenhower Center allowed him the access to primary documents from personal interviews of those involved in the invasion. He collected primary documents from Forrest Pogue, a well renowned American historian that was offshore on June 6th interviewing wounded men. Ambrose also collected first hand accounts of the Normandy assault from The Longest Day by Cornelius Ryan. From these and other sources, Stephen gathered over 1,380 oral stories to depict the war as accurately as he could. All the sources he gathered, being majority primary, and previous knowledge he had obtained from writing his various other books allowed him to create a strong and provoking thesis and account of D-Day.
According to academic and scholarly review, Ambrose excels at providing new perspective behind the execution of D-Day. American Historical Review states that ...even the most knowledgeable historian will gain new insights. from Ambrose's book. Ambrose took a topic already well study, and adds to the facts a sense of emotion through the use of personal interviews and accounts. It allows the reader to not only study the actions that took place, but also to be behind the minds of leaders like Field Marshal Rommel or German tactical commander. The book looks at the assault from a completely different point of view than most historians would choose to take on. Furthermore, Ambrose doesn't sugar coat the logistics of the battle in the book. He provides his own bias on what made the battle successful. This in turn provoking thoughts of other historians, that despite Ambrose's traditional take on the topic, still can't deny his significant theme.
The American Historical Review and Foreign Affairs both agree that Ambrose's novel provides a compelling and unique outlook of what happened on June 6th, 1944. The American Historical Review specifically reports that although Ambrose mastered a compelling theme in his story, the book also contained few disputable points. The specific example being Ambrose's argumentative opinion on whether or not the Atlantic Wall was one of the greatest blunders in military history. The statement ignoring the fact that Germany caused a logistic crisis that sent Europe into a prolonged war in the next year. His accusation that Axis soldiers spent majority of their time building defense barriers also swings wide from the complete truth. Despite subtle points like these, that most historians would disagree with, most all historians will agree that Ambrose took a an idiosyncratic approach to bringing to life the stories of the men and women that fought vigorously for their country in the invasion of D-Day.
References:
- Ambrose, Stephen E. D-Day June 6th, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War ll New York: Simon & Shuster Paperbacks, 1994.
- "D-Day, June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II Summary & Study Guide." https://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-d-day-june-6-1944/#gsc.tab=0 (accessed November 15, 2018).
- Maxwell, Kenneth. "The Future of the Western Hemisphere: A Shared Vision toward 2015." Foreign Affairs vol. 73, no. 4 (2000): page 172.
- "Stephen E. Ambrose." D-Day. https://www.worldwar2history.info/Band-of-Brothers/ambrose.html (accessed November 10, 2018).
- Stephen E. Ambrose. D-Day June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1994. Page 655. $30.00." The American Historical Review, 1995.
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Emmett Till: a Case of Racism
All throughout history there has been an unbelievable amount of racism. So many times someone has been judged for the color of their skin. One example of this shameless hate is the murder of young Emmett Till on August 28, 1955. Emmett was just a normal kid.. When all of the trouble started, he was just acting the same way most teenagers do. Completing a harmless dare called on by his friends. The horrific way he was murdered threw the black community into a fit of rage all across America. Till was just a young teenage boy whos' death forever changed the way people look at racism.
Young Emmett lived a fairly regular life, he was always a happy kid. Till was born on July 25, 1941 in Chicago, Illinois. His parents are Louis and Mamie Till, sadly his father Louis died while serving in the US military when Emmett was just three. He was a very diligent and sweet boy. Emmett spent most of his time helping around the neighborhood. He shared a very close bond with his mother Mamie. Emmett worked crazy amounts, working extremely hard to make sure his mother would never be too weary or overstretched. However, according to Mamie, he was an ghastly and sick child. He was born with speech defect that caused him to stutter, he also had polio when he was very young. Even though he was things did not look that good for Emmett, he had a great character and was a very caring child.
The racism was less sever where he lived in Chicago although he still lived in a segregated neighborhood. The summer of 1955, Emmett and his cousins begged to be allowed to take a fun trip to Money, Mississippi, a small town with a little population of 55. Emmett wanted to spend his summer with his cousins and spend a little bit of time out of the city. Till stayed with his great-uncle Mose Wright and his great-aunt Elizabeth Wright. Him and his cousins were having a blast running around the town of Money. Going to play in the fields and hanging out the town stores. Emmett and his cousins had no fear of the whites. They even explained how they had white girlfriends back in Chicago.
On August 24th, Emmett made his way to a corner store named Bryant's Grocery and Meat Market, he wanted to buy some bubblegum. . As he traveled out of the store, it was said that he made an inappropriate comment or gesture towards the owners wife, Carolyn Bryant. Some evidence suggests the Emmett did say Bye, baby! (Crowe 54-55). There are other rumors that suggest that he asked her on a date and tried to hold her hand. There is also evidence that he whistled at her. According to Mamie Till, she had taught Emmett to whistle when he had trouble with a word because of his speech defect. 'I had taught Emmett that when you get hooked on a word, just whistle and go ahead and say it (Curry 4). Not one person knows exactly what Emmett did or said to Carolyn. Whatever happened, it does not justify what happened to Emmett a few days later.
On Sunday, August 25, 1955, Roy Bryant, Carolyn's husband, and J.W. Milam drove to Mose Wright's home.They stormed up to the house, and demanded to see Emmett. Till's great- grandfather Mose Wright knew all about the brutality in the south unlike Emmet. With a lot hesitation, Mose lets the men take Emmett in hopes that they would only beat him and return him home by morning (Crowe 14-16, 58, 60). The men only drove a few miles to a nearby plantation. They took Emmet and threw him into a shed. Not a soul truly know what they did to Emmett Till that night. However, one witness by the name of Willie Reed, did hear sounds coming from the shed. Willie explained how he heard noises coming from the shed, heard sounds of beating and cries of 'Mama, Lord have mercy. Lord have mercy!' coming from. the shed (Crowe 60). Reed has also stated that he saw black workers cleaning out blood from the back of the pickup.
That next morning, Saturday August 26, 1955, Emmett never showed back up to Mose Wright's home. Till's body was found the morning of August 31, 1955. He was found in the Tallahatchie River near Greenwood, Mississippi. He was beat past recognition, his face and body were mutilated. The only way they were able to identify Emmett was the monogram ring that had once belonged to his father before he passed. The trial for the two men did not last long, both Roy Bryant and J.W. Milam were clear of all charges that were held against them and walked free. The story about young Emmett Till changed the way people thought racial issues and may have even changed the course of the civil rights movement.
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Emmett Till’s Death and End of Segregation
In January 1, 1863, Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation to end slavery in America. However, many whites after that believed that the slaves just set free shouldn't get the same rights as whites. So, the Jim Crow Laws were created in order for blacks to not have the same rights as whites. Jim Crow laws state that blacks have to use different water fountains, schools, movie theaters, than whites. Groups such as the KKK were created also to prevent blacks from having these rights. So, even though they weren't slaves, they still didn't have full freedom. Many blacks in the south were angered but had no power, but some people did have power. One of those people is Emmett Louis Till. Emmett Louis Till was born on July 25, 1941, and he was going to change the lives of countless blacks in America. However, since Emmett was from the North, he was unfamiliar with the etiquette blacks were expected to show to whites. In the South blacks were treated miserably due to the Jim Crow laws. Due to these laws Emmett Louis Till died.
It all began at Bryant's Grocery & Meat Market in Money, Mississippi. Emmett was left there alone in front of the cashier, Carolyn Bryant. Reportedly, he talked to her in a flirtatious way, and whistled to her on his way out. She didn't like what Emmett did. Then, on August 26th, Ms. Bryant's husband came back from a work trip. She immediately told her husband what happened that day regarding Emmett. Mr. Bryant and his half-brother, J.W. Milam, set up plans to kidnap Emmett. Then finally, on August 27th Bryant and Milam sought out to find Emmett. Around a few hours passed, they found out that Emmett was staying at his uncle's house, Moses Wright. At around 2:30 in the morning, Milam and Bryant arrived at Wright's house east of Money, Mississippi. Bryant knocked on the door and it was opened by Moses Wright. Bryant then went into the house, in order to find Emmett. Soon enough, Bryant found Emmett, put him in his car, then drove off with Emmett. According to Bryant and Milam's interview after the incident, they "[justed whipped] him...and [scared] some sense into him." Milam said they drove Emmett trying to find a cliff with a hundred-foot drop down to the Mississippi River. After a while, they failed to find the cliff, so the men drove to a barn near Drew, Mississippi.
Willie Reed, who was a witness at the barn, said he heard sounds including hollering and whipping coming from the barn, which were sounds which Emmett made when Bryant and Milam beat him up and killed him. After the truck left the farm, it stopped at J. W. Milam's store in Glendora. A witness noticed that "blood [was] running out of the bed of the truck and pooling on the ground." When the blood pointed to be Milam's fault, he reportedly said that he killed a deer, and the blood was from the deer. When Milam was told it wasn't the season for deers, he pulled back the tarp covering Emmett to reveal his dead body and said, "This is what happens to smart niggers." Later on, Bryant and Milam decided to put Emmet's dead body into the Tallahatchie River because they didn't want to keep the dead body on them incase something like that happens again. Before they threw his body into the river, they find something in order for his body to sink. so , they stopped by a store to purchase a heavy fan that would sink his dead body. When they arrived at the Tallahatchie River, they tied the fan to Emmett's neck, and put Emmett into the river. Three days later, a boy named Robert Hodges, found Emmett while he was fishing, eight miles away from where Emmett was put into the water. While Emmett was on the boat, he admired the silver ring on Emmet's finger given to him by his father, Louis Till. Soon a man and his assistant walked up to the boat and lifted Emmett's body from the boat and placed it in a casket.
Then the man's assistant gave the silver ring to Wright, who later gave it to LeFlore County Deputy Sheriff John Ed Cothran. When they put Emmett into the casket, Bradley Wanted to leave the casket open to show how bad blacks were being treated. Bradley once said, "Unless an example is made of the lynchers of Emmett, it won't be safe for a Negro to walk the streets anywhere in America." Less than a day after Emmett's disappearance, both Roy Bryant and J. W. Milam were arrested for kidnapping, and admitting that they took Emmett from his uncle's home. On September 3, H. C. Strider, Counties Sheriff, stated that the body pulled out of the river didn't seem like Emmett Till's. Strider said, "the body looked more like a grown man instead of a young boy" and probably had been sitting in the river for four or five days. Which is longer than Emmett, since Emmett was in the river for only three days. After collecting these theories, Strider said that Emmett "is still alive." Later on, all five white lawyers decided to be on Milam and Bryant's side in the Bryant-Milam Trial. When the state began presenting the case, more than seventy reporters (some from far away distances including London), packed the courtroom. Moses Wright was the state's first witness. Wright testified that Milam and Bryant came to his home on August 28 and carried his young relative, Emmett till, to their truck and left.
When Wright was asked to identify the two men, Wright rose from is seat dramatically and pointed at the defendants. Wright also told jury members he identified the body pulled from the river as being Emmett Till, and recognized the silver ring in the courtroom as being the ring he saw Emmett wear. Soon the state called to the stand Emmett's mother, Mamie Bradley, in hope to eliminate all reasonable lies that can be said. She also identified the ring that Emmett was wearing. A series of prosecution witness left no reasonable doubt that Milam and Bryant took Emmett, but very little doubt that they killed him hours later. Later on, on Thursday afternoon, the state took a break and the defense presented its first witness, Carolyn Bryant. Carolyn Bryant described the August 24 incident with Emmett and her at the Bryant's Grocery & Meat Market. Bryant said that "just after dark" with only Emmett and her in the store, Emmett was flirting with her and being touchy as she stood by the candy counter to collect money. She said she got her hand out of Emmett's "with much difficulty" as Emmett asked her, "How about a date, baby?" and when she tried to walk away from Emmett, she said, Emmett grabbed her by the waist. "I was just scared to death." After Mrs. Bryant's Testimony, the jury members went to discuss if Milam and Bryant are guilty or not. 68 minutes later after the jury members had their discussion, they returned to the courtroom to tell everyone that Milam and Bryant are "Not Guilty."
Within four years after Emmett's murder trial, about 20% of black population in Tallahatchie County had left the town because they were scared they were going to die. Milam's and Bryant's stores, were boycotted and within fifteen months all the stores were either closed or sold due to insufficient money. Blacks refused to work on the Milam farm, and J.W. Milam found a new job which was bootlegging. Selling their store after the trial upset many people on their side. Sheriff Strider was heavy attacked in both national and Mississippi newspapers. Also in 1957, Strider barely escaped an attempt for people to kill him. None of the other men who participated in the kidnapping of Emmett till ever faced charges, However the Department of Justice reopened the case in 2004, and in 2005, Emmett's body was dug out from the ground by the Cook County coroner to perform a postmortem examination on the body. After analyzing the body, the body was identified as Emmett Till's body, and metallic fragments in the skull showed he was shot with a 0.45 caliber gun all for just a lie that Ms. Bryant said to her husband.
Overall, Emmett Till's death helped segregation to end. Many people realize that whites were treating blacks so bad, that they needed to change. In August 28, 1963, 100 years after the Emencaplation Proclamation was written, a person named Martin Luther King Jr. gave a speech that had the biggest impact on ending segregation. Then, with all of these events combined, segregation was gone for good. However, although the death of Emmett Till was very tragic, Emmett died in order to change the way the other blacks in America lived the rest of their lives.
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The September Attacks
On September 11, 2001, the United States endured the worst terrorist attack in American history. This series of four organized suicide attacks were carried out by nineteen members of the Islamic extremist group al-Qaeda. Before this devastating event, America was dominating with the economic, technological, and military advancements that they had been making, unlike many surrounding nations. Despite America's stability and success at the time, the country remained vulnerable to strikes by hate groups and raging anti-Americans. No matter how large their military budget was or what advancements they were making, America would've never been able to prepare themselves for the attack they would undergo on that quaint Tuesday morning.
The morning of September 11, 2001 was just like any other day across the country. At 7:59 a.m., American Airlines Flight 11 departed from Boston's Logan International Airport to go to Los Angeles, California. At 8:14 a.m., another plane, United Airlines Flight 175, takes off for the same route. In the midst of this, two more planes depart from other airports with destinations including Los Angeles and San Francisco, California. After only five minutes in the air, flight attendants aboard Flight 11 became aware of the 5 hijackers on the plane and alerted ground personnel of the use of mace, bomb threats, and several stabbings on the plane. The names of the men who took control over this plane were Mohamed Atta, Abdulaziz al-Omari, Wail al-Shehri, Waleed a-Shehri, and Satam al-Suqami. Crew members, along with the innocent passengers, began to panic and had no idea what was about to happen on what should've been a routine flight. After flight attendant Madeline Sweeney made the last known communication from the plane, hijacker Mohammed Atta makes his first two attempts to control the plane at 8:24 a.m. and begins the worst terrorist attack the United States will ever endure.
In New York, this Tuesday was seemingly normal, the skies were clear, citizens were going to work, kids were being dropped off at daycare, and the morning was anything but out of the ordinary until tragedy struck. At 8:46 a.m., Flight 11 was flying extremely low and crashed into the north tower of the World Trade Center loaded with 92 people and 20,000 gallons of jet fuel. The plane, a Boeing 767, was traveling at nearly 496 mph near the 80th floor of the 110 story skyscraper and instantly killed hundreds of people and trapped many more on surrounding floors. The people in the streets were shocked, they had no idea what they had just seen and instantly went in panic. Many people who were in the building that didn't get killed at the initial impact were stuck in the building and trying to escape but had no way out. Those able to escape began evacuating the tower and fled into the streets in an attempt to reach safety. Shortly after, the scene was broadcasted live on many television networks to update the nation on what was thought to be a freak accident. This, however, was not a just a mishap, but it was the first of four different crashes that would occur over the next several hours.
18 minutes later after the initial hit, United Airlines Flight 175 struck the south tower of the World Trade Center at 9:03 a.m. This plane was another Boeing 767, carrying 65 people and the 5 al-Qaeda terrorists Marwan al-Shehhi, Fayez Banihammad, Mohand al-Shehri, Hamza al-Ghamdi, and Ahmed al-Ghamdi. Flight 175 had only been traveling for thirty minutes before the hijackers took over the cockpit and changed the route of the plane. Due to the numerous amount of newscasters on the scene, the crash into the south tower was caught on camera and televised live on global news. The collision led to a massive explosion in the building, which led to the building's collapse less than an hour after the hit. These skyscrapers were built to withstand nearly anything including large winds and fires but were not able to survive the thousands of gallons of burning jet fuel. Debris from the crash fell onto surrounding buildings, in the streets, and floated throughout the air. At 10:30 a.m. a little after the south tower collapsed, the north tower came crashing down with it and killed 1,400 people. A small amount of only six people were able to survive the collapse of the towers and nearly 10,000 were left severely injured. The World Trade Center was not the only building that was destroyed as a result of this, several buildings surrounding the towers were severely damaged as well. Hundreds of search and rescuers assessed the scene and risked their lives by exposing themselves to harmful particles in the air as well as falling debris in efforts to save citizens from the buildings. Unfortunately, not many made it out alive and the lucky ones who survived suffered from extreme injuries.
As if the chaos in New York wasn't enough, a third plane was added into the equation. American Airlines Flight 77 departed from Washington Dulles International Airport at 8:20 a.m. with 6 crew members, 53 passengers, and 5 hijackers. 35 minutes into the flight, hijackers forced everyone on board including pilots and crew members to the back of the plane. At 9:45 a.m., the plane was flown into the west side of the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia which led to the collapse of a section of the U.S. military headquarters. Every person on board of Flight 77 along with 125 people were killed in the Pentagon, many being military personnel. The impact of the plane also caused a huge fire that took firefighters several days to extinguish. After news of the Pentagon crash, the Capitol building, as well as the White House, were evacuated to take safety precautions.
The fourth and final plane that was hijacked in this American hate crime was United Airlines Flight 93. This plane, that was intended to take a routine flight from the Newark International Airport in New Jersey to California's San Francisco International Airport, contained 33 passengers, 4 hijackers, and 7 crew members. When the hijackers initially tried to overtake the cockpit 46 minutes after takeoff, the pilot and first officer deactivated autopilot in order to make taking control of the plane more of a difficulty to the hijackers. The intended destination of Flight 93 has not been determined but theories are the Capitol Building in Washington D.C., the White House, or one of the many nuclear power plants on the east coast. When passengers and flight attendants heard news by phone of the attacks that had been made earlier in the day on the Pentagon and World Trade Center, they made an attempt to regain control of the plane. The people aboard knew that there was no possible way for the aircraft to return safely to an airport so their mission was to crash the plane into a place where no one but the members of Flight 93 was injured. Passengers and flight attendants were making phone calls to their family telling them what was going on and saying their last goodbyes to their loved ones. As a group effort, passengers fought against the four hijackers and eventually gained control over the plane, crashing it at about 500 miles per hour in a field about 20 minutes flying distance away near Shanksville, Pennsylvania at 10:10 a.m. Despite the tragedy and loss of 40 innocent people, without their bravery and heroism Flight 93 could have taken the lives of hundreds or even thousands of more people.
The events that occurred on 9/11 had nearly immediate effects on people all across the country. Rescue workers from all over the nation such as policemen, firefighters, and missionaries stopped everything they were doing and traveled to New York City to help with damage control from the fallen twin towers. Their goal was to find as many survivors as possible as well as reconnect them with their loved ones. Americans across the country were doing anything they could in order to help ease the pain and sorrow they were feeling from this tragic event. In total, nearly 3,000 people died as a result of the September 11 attacks including women, men, and children. Memorials and vigils were held all over the world to honor those who lost their lives and photographs of people were posted near the remains of the World Trade Center for friends and family to try and identify those who were either killed or still missing. Not only were there memorials for victims of the World Trade Center attack but also memorials for the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and one for Flight 93 in Shanksville. The Pentagon Memorial consisted of a park with 184 benches facing towards the Pentagon as well as a memorial inside the building where Flight 77 crashed into. The memorial in place for Flight 93 is what is known as a Wall of Names that is placed on a hill. Although there are many remembrances and memorial sights all over the country, these are the most well known.
The nineteen terrorists who participated in the suicide attack were from Saudi Arabia along with other Arab nations. The attack was carried by terrorist organization al-Qaeda who were led by Saudi Arabian Osama bin Laden. Supposedly, the motive for this attack rooted from America's support of Israel and their ongoing military presence in the Middle East. Some of the terrorists prepared for this attack by taking flying lessons while some just participated to help harm the crew members of each flight to gain control of each plane. Each of the planes was strategically picked to ensure all of them had an abundant amount of jet fuel to worsen each crash tremendously.
President George W. Bush was in office at the time of this American tragedy. When he first heard news about what was going on it as 9:05 a.m. and he was in Sarasota, Florida giving a reading lesson to second-grade students from Emma Booker Elementary School. Occupants of the White House were told to go to the underground bunkers of the White House to be safe just in case they were to go under attack. Shortly after the crash into the Pentagon, the U.S. Capitol building and White House are evacuated. After a long day of President Bush moving around the country to keep him concealed and away from any possible threats, he returns to the White House at 7 p.m. and delivers a televised address at 9 p.m. In this address, he states, Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America. These acts shatter steel, but cannot dent the steel of American resolve. In efforts to lessen the risks of future acts of terrorism, the National Security Agency was given more powers in order to more effectively protect the U.S. On December 13, 2001 the U.S. government released a tape where Osama bin Laden takes full responsibility for the attacks that occurred on 9/11. America's quest to extinguish Osama bin Laden's terrorist organization began less than a month after the attack and lasted nearly 10 years until they finally found him and killed him on May 2, 2011.
September 11, 2001 is a day that America will never forget. To this day, 9/11 is still the biggest hate crime ever conducted against the U.S. Not only did thousands of innocent civilians pass away in the result of this attack but also many policemen, firefighters, and rescue workers lost their lives to save others. As the country mourned the loss of the victims, their patriotism flourished and unity was brought across the nation.
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Should Drones be Used in War?
Should Drones Be Used in War?
As the times change, the laws of war have to change with it in order to protect as many lives as possible. As technology becomes more advanced and the weapons people use become deadlier, such as drones or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), more people have questions as to whether or not they are ethical to use in times of war. Drones will shape the laws of war just as other weapons throughout time have. Every time this happens, there are people who still question the morals behind inventions and debate the ethics of each weapon. When the bow and arrow was invented, it was the deadliest weapon of its time. Warriors used it to kill from long distances and hit targets with a great amount of accuracy. By today's standards, they are simple and outdated. This is the case with drones in today's world. Drones are effective in today's warfare by reducing the loss of life to soldiers, reducing loss of civilian life, making planning and execution of battles more efficient.
To begin, it is logical to say that there should be laws governing war. Without rules, it would result in catastrophic losses of both military personnel and civilian lives for all parties involved. Systematic killings of massive groups of people and the use of inhumane tactics would make war more destructive than it already is. To limit ourselves, certain principles were set in place by leading military powers throughout history.
According to Braden R. Allenby and his article Are new technologies undermining the laws of war? he claims that there are three main perspectives to take on these laws. The realist perspective holds that, because states are not bound by anything save their own self-interest, whatever needs to be done to protect that national interest is permissible. . . On the other end of the spectrum, the pacifist perspective holds that war is entirely evil, and that no war can be ethical or moral. In such a view, any attempt to make war palatable, such as developing norms and laws of war that reduce collateral damage, is simply lipstick on a pig; . . . Very few actors hold to these perspectives in their pure form, which means that most countries and militaries today adhere to a middle way that includes some form of the laws of war (Allenby).
Somewhere in that middle ground are what most of the world's militaries abide by when it comes to warfare. They do this to protect the lives military personnel, financial resources, and civilians when possible. The same article states that there are three main categories of the laws of war. The first is jus ad bellum. This defines the ethicality and legality to start a conflict. It is usually used when a nation is under attack by another or needs an excuse to start war with another. A good example of this would be when Al Qaida attacked the United States. This law is a great one to have to keep leaders from declaring war whenever they want. It puts rules on what justifies going to war. The second, jus in bello, deals with the ethical and legal behavior once a conflict is under way. (Allenby) This concept closely follows the Geneva and Hague conventions which refer to the protections to Humanitarian Law (law of armed conflict). The third category, which is jus post bellum, deals with the conduct and issues to make peace after war. There are few modern examples of this, but the best one and most recognized by the public would be the Treaty of Versailles following World War I and the peace treaties signed at the end of World War II. These examples of common laws of war can now help define how new technologies can fit into them as well.
With that being said, what exactly is an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), or more commonly known as a drone? According to Bradley J. Strawser, they are uninhabited remotely controlled weapons systems (more specifically, for this paper, ones owned by the US military and government). Some examples of these are predator drones and reaper drones. Due to their controversial nature, people debate whether or not drones are ethical to use during war. The most obvious argument as to why they are ethical is that they can reduce the risk of human fatalities during war or any other time. They allow the controller to seek out targets from large distances while eliminating the risk to the operator and his fellow troops. Putting less people in danger strengthens military power and retains their ultimate safety. Also, if the United States could use drones to persuade other nations from not going to war at all, both sides would not have to suffer.
Another argument that supports the ethical use of drones during war is that because operators are able to use what is known as 'targeted killing' to obtain their objective, less civilians' lives are endangered. The Geneva Conventions were held to make sure this happened in the first place. The Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols are at the core of international humanitarian law, the body of international law that regulates the conduct of armed conflict and seeks to limit its effects. They specifically protect people who are not taking part in the hostilities (civilians, health workers and aid workers) and those who are no longer participating in the hostilities, such as wounded, sick and shipwrecked soldiers and prisoners of war (Geneva Convention). Being able to target one small area or even one group of people would reduce the number of casualties there will be for everyone. Instead of flying an aircraft loaded with massive bombs overhead and bombing an entire area like in World War II, civilian casualties are drastically reduced. The strikes are carried out using MQ-1 Predator drones, armed with Hellfire missiles, and MQ-9 Reapers, which, in addition to Hellfire missiles, can launch GBU-12 Paveway II laser-guided bombs and JDAM GPS-guided bombs (Jordan). Laser guided systems are popular because of their ability to hit an area within inches or feet of the laser target. One of the first drone attacks was launched on June 19, 2004 in the country of Pakistan which killed a targeted Taliban leader Nek Mohammed. Since then, up until May of 2013, a total of 340-357 attacks were used by US military forces (Jordan). By making drones that can hit small specific areas, the operator can minimize the damage to surrounding buildings and people which is the goal for most missions. They can also take out specific targets and achieve important military goals that will end the war faster.
The last, and possibly most important use for drones in war is their ability to be used as surveillance tools. They can fly above battlefields and allow troops to get an accurate picture of where to go, how they can get there safely, and where enemy targets are hiding. There are several different types of drones used for this purpose. Micro and Nano-drones are usually one to four inch machines called Black Hornets which have been used by soldiers to look over walls and around corners (Knight). These can be carried on all kinds of field missions and help individual squads of soldiers fighting in the city or anywhere their field of vision is not very far. They help keep them safe travelling through enemy dense places. There are UAVs called small tactical drones that are slightly larger than the micro-drones, are lightweight, and can fly up to 12 hours and a range of 90 km. It is used for ISTAR (Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Reconnaissance) gathering (Knight). These could be used by field commanders to plan out patrol routes, small scale attacks, and many other things. Next are medium-sized reconnaissance drones. They are also used for ISTAR missions but have a much longer flight time and a longer range. They can fly for up to 52 hours and can get to an altitude of 35,000 feet (Knight). They are easier to conceal because of their altitude and provide clear aerial view pictures of battlefields and cities. They are also the most common type of drone used in most of the world. (Knight). The last type are large combat and surveillance drones. These are used to carry out most of the long-range targeted killings by way of missiles and laser guided bombs. However, they also are used to scan phone calls and gather intelligence that way.
In conclusion, drones are a safe and ethical alternative to sending troops into war zones and endangering their lives. Even though war is a destructive and terrible force that kills millions, there are certain guidelines in place to minimize the damage and reduce the loss of life as much as possible. Drones make that possible. Or, at least, easier to do than before. Debates across the world go on every day as to their ethicality, but drones allow military forces to scope out terrain and battlegrounds, allow them to plan effectively, and execute missions with minimal danger to soldiers' lives.
Works Cited
- Allenby, B. R. Are new technologies undermining the laws of war? Bulletin of The Atomic Scientists, 2014. 21-31.
- Jordan, J. The Effectiveness of the Drone Campaign against Al Qaeda Central: A Case Study. Journal of Strategic Studies, 2014. 4-29.
- Knight, B. A Guide to Military Drones. DW, DW Top Stories, June 30, 2017.
- Strawser, B. Moral Predators: The Duty to Employ Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles. Journal of Military Ethics, 2010. 342-368.
- The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols International Committee of The Red Cross, 1 Jan. 2014, https://www.icrc.org/en/document/geneva-conventions-1949-additional-protocols, Accessed 5 December. 2018
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Drones in Criminal Justice System
Law enforcement officer's main objectives are to deter crime in the most non-violent way possible, but more recently their objective has been more evidently to calm the situation and bring the perpetrator in at all costs. Militarism is an ideology focused on the best means to solve the problem (Kraska 503). Sometimes however, the best means aren't the safest or most effective. There is an epidemic in unnecessary militarization in civilian policing (Kraska 145).Across the country heavily armed and Special Weaponry and Tactical units (SWAT) have forced their way into people's homes, and now they have drones. The Mountain view, California SWAT team has been training on the tactical use of drones. They believe drones can help minimize the dangers police officers are exposed to. They have been working with the robotics community at the Stanford University Aerospace Robotics Laboratory, to calibrate drones in a way that meets the SWAT team's needs. Their goal is to use the drones to limit injury or loss of life of citizens, suspects, or police officers (Burns, Jones, Morris 2010).During their training they preform scenarios that model incidents that have or may occur in real life. Throughout the training the robotics team and the SWAT team found many challenges. They discovered the team would have to take the time to plan the mission with the technology first rather than going in blind. They also found that the operator would need to be aware of the environment they were operating in, and the drone and the operator would need to work in unison. Since they were not aware of the environment they were operating in, during an exercise the unit asked the command post for a map of the building, but command sent them the wrong one. The drone could not get through the building because the operator did not have the correct map, thus drone cannot require accurate maps since they are often not available (Burns, Jones, Morris 2010).
The other issue with drones aside from privacy violations, is the question of when does the power of these drones cross the line? Robotics organizations hope to create drones that can detain individuals that have violated the law, until the police arrive. The question then lies, what rights would these drones have. It is not likely that it would be accepted that a piece of technology had the ability to detain someone, even if there was a human operator on the other side. Who would be held liable if an armed drone shot and killed innocent person? These are the questions that should first be evaluated before arming drones, or using them in the battle against the war on crime. Is it safe to give that much power to a piece of technology? Technology is always changing, needing to be updated and is susceptible to hacking or technological viruses. With this notion in mind we can see a shift in governmental control.
Drones or AI are nothing less than human hunting technology in the service of pacification (Wall 2013). Drones used for the purpose of surveillance and in efforts to catch illicit activity, can be just as biased through class and race, just as a regular officers patrolling the streets. Since there is a need for security, companies buy into these products of drones and AI. They feed off of individuals insecurities and use them to justify the continual production of these technologies. This creates an interconnection of the state and the security industry. Just as with police patrolling the street, there can be a predisposal to racial and class bias. Minorities and poor neighborhoods are considered to have higher crime rates as opposed to other classes. Police will patrol these areas more for crime because of this belief. There is a distinct police role in facilitating authoritarianism and state violence (Seri 2012). By police creating this type of interconnection, there can be a lack of concern for others rights and wishes. By only having drones survey the lower class or minority areas, there is an atmosphere of authority and obedience, and a sense of freedoms being disparaged.
With drones, this issue can be intensified because it can result in a constant 24/7 surveillance of their community. The upper class that buys into this, for their peace of mind may not be bothered by this notion, but the people who are being surveyed 24/7 do not feel at ease. This creates a shift towards a Marxist type of government where individuals ae controlled by this. Citizens who buy into the capitalist system of security want to be protected by the law from other dangerous classes in society. With the use of these technologies already in place, we can combine them with the drone system and AI. Drones can be equipped with shot spotter, facial recognition, surveillance, night vision, and more. The possibilities are endless. We need to question however, why the government feels the need to put these technologies into place. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, crime rates have dropped from 51.7% in 1979 to 15.0% in 2010 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2010). If crime rates are continuing to drop, why does the United States feel the need to advance their domestic security? This could be an effect of the public security market growth. Citizens want to feel safe, with the social contract people buy into this idea of giving up certain freedoms for safety. Drones are a technological sublime that points to the dream of securing the insecurity of domestic order (Wall 2013). Many departments have already purchased drones for surveillance purposes, but have not yet equipped them with any other forms of weaponry/ technology.
Employment of police drones create new configurations of state power and accumulation. Although police officials justify drones by claiming they are cheaper than helicopters and better to protect officers from harm's way, discourses of security remain the most forceful argument, as police officials routinely exclaim drones offer an extra layer of public safety (Wall 2013).
State power is the ability of astateto regulate behaviors and enforce order within its territory. Under Marxism people in power use their influence over others to control them. Citizens who buy into the capitalist system of security want to be protected by the law from other dangerous classes in society. According to Marx, law controls the assent of the majority (Lainer, Henry and Anastasia, 2015). Bourgeois law serves as the capitalist power holders, who use it to retain or increase their power or control.individuals are both controlled and defined by the law (Lainer, Henry and Anastasia, 2015).
It has been predicted for several years now that technology will advance beyond our imagination. Drones and Artificial Intelligence (AI) will undoubtedly figure into crime prevention and crime control, as it is already being implemented. Though there are just as many negative aspects of these types of technology being incorporated into today's police force as there are positive, this implementation will continue. As Saudi Arabia could be considered the city of the future, other countries will follow. Drones and AI are the technology that government officials will obtain as a tool for police department tactical use for domestic security. As technology advances so does the nature of crime prevention; as crime progresses, so does the ways in which we fight it.
As Hollywood media sources have dramatized the reality of AI, viewers can imagine a world like that, and become more desensitized to the harsh reality of the future of criminal justice. With drones currently being implemented into today's police and military tactics, the uses of this technology will expand. As previously stated, state power is the ability of astateto regulate behaviors and enforce order within its territory and citizens who buy into the capitalist system of security want to be protected by the law from other dangerous classes in society. Bourgeois law serves as the capitalist power holders, who use it to retain or increase their power or control.individuals are both controlled and defined by the law (Lainer, Henry and Anastasia, 2015). This coupled with the interconnection of the state and the security industry, can create an authoritarian state. If drones and AI are to be implemented and applied, the criminal justice system has to first be fixed before more advancements can be adopted. As media sources have predicted, drones and AI truly are the future or the criminal justice system.
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Is Nuclear Power the Answer to Fuel Costs and Global Warming?
“A cap and trade program would make it more expensive for companies to emit CO2, businesses would be more inclined to invest in clean energy, nonpolluting source of energy and profitable kind of energy” (Climate Change 3). The cap and trade program is a friendly solution to the problem of global warming. It is trying to reduce Carbon Dioxide emission by making companies stop using coal-fuel sources and want to start the nuclear power source which is profitable and nonpolluting. Nuclear power is a nuclear reaction used to generate electricity in a power plant turbine. The neutrons in the turbine are fired with incredible velocity and when the neutron splits the nucleus in half it will release large amounts of energy. Nuclear power is the solution to high fuel costs and global warming because it is efficient, does not emit Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and cheaper than a coal energy source.
People started worrying about the environment. Floods, Hurricane, Droughts, and Storm are increasing because of high CO2 in the atmosphere and the high temperature. CO2 is increasing mainly because of burning fossil fuel in factories. Energy sources which are using fossil fuel like coal emit a lot of CO2. So planting more nuclear power plants can be a solution for this because it doesn’t emit CO2. But nuclear power is expensive and still, US didn't find a solution for nuclear waste. Now the problem arise.
Nuclear power is much too expensive and there is no solution to the increasing nuclear waste. The plant's original cost estimate was less than $1 billion for four reactors. Its eventual price tag in 1989 was nearly $9 billion, for only two reactors. It is expensive than the coal-fueled source. The wastes are stored in a containment. There is an accident happened on Chernobyl power plant because of the leakage in the waste containment leading to diseases and death. That disaster still affects new borning babies. It makes everyone more conscious of nuclear waste (Nuclear power - Fuel costs and global warming).
Nuclear power have less radiation compared to other environmental and energy sources. It produces a large amount of electricity with less use of fossil fuel without destroying the environment and atmosphere. Nuclear power station supports thousands of jobs. Building a new plant requires more workers. Also, it saves $12 billion each year for energy costs. Because it is not expensive, it can provide energy to poor places. New advantages in reactor technology will make future nuclear reactors more powerful, more efficient and less wasteful (Good 1).
Use of nuclear power is increasing. “Nuclear power facilities can produce energy at a 91% efficiency rate 24/7, with virtually zero carbon emissions” (Good 1). It generates heat and doesn’t produce air pollution while operating. It produces more energy. “Nuclear power avoid up to 174 gigatons of carbon dioxide emissions and 9.5 million air pollution death” (Bailey 1). Unlike fossil fuel plants nuclear plants do not emit CO2, a greenhouse gas which causes global warming. It can produce more energy with fewer emissions.
The US find a solution to nuclear waste. “A company gate is working on a new type of reactor called a traveling-wave reactor, which is able to recycle used fuel, enabling it to run for 100 years without changing the fuel rods in every 18 to 24 months” (Nuclear power - Fuel costs and global warming 6). Used fuel is no more be stored in a containment anymore. “One-Third of the spent fuel is removed from the reactor and replaced with fresh uranium (good 1). New reactors could take spent fuel or weapon waste and use nearly all of it as fuel, leaving little waste.
Critics argue that nuclear power is not safe, and expensive but it is still considered by many to be the best way to meet the world’s energy needs. “Nuclear power plants are vulnerable to potentially dangerous core meltdowns and containment breaches and are attractive targets for terrorist attacks” ( Nuclear power - Fuel costs and global warming 2). Nuclear power plants are not safe because even a speck of size of pinpoint could kill a person. Any leaks in the containment can lead to radiation sickness, cancer, and birth defects. Tons of nuclear waste is stored in containment and a leak in it is dangerous and can kill a person. It is easy for the terrorist to attack. “In France, Nuclear waste from nuclear power plants can be recycled as fuel and US is also using that method to reduce the waste” ( Nuclear power - Fuel costs and global warming 3). Recycle the fuel and use it for 100 years. The waste is highly radioactive and dangerous if not carefully handled.
Advances in nuclear power plants make it more powerful, efficient, less wasteful and safer than it used to be. Despite the concerns waste, safety, and cost, nuclear power is considered the best energy source. Building more nuclear power plants can reduce CO2 and fuel cost. Every country is producing nuclear power plants for a better environment and promised to reduce the amount of CO2 emission. If they not, global warming will increase, climate will change and earth has to face a lot of hurricanes, floods, and droughts.
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The Effects of Sleep Deprivation in High School Students
Sleep is one of the most overlooked necessities we have. We stay up late with colleagues or labor over unfinished work without a second thought to the amount of sleep we might be losing. High School students develop in fast paced and demanding environments that require the best they can offer. Often at the cost of their own personal time. Unbeknownst to us, irregular sleep patterns affect both our physical and mental health almost immediately, more so on the developing bodies of adolescents.
Sleep is often considered period of time in which the body is able to relax. This, in fact, is not the case. Sleep is the optimal time for your body to process needed information, retain memories, synthesise hormones, and to grow or repair needed tissues among other important functions.Therefore, we can conclude that sleep is a vital function of the growing body of a young adult for it to be able to perform at optimal condition in society as well as academically. Healthy sleeping patterns are characterized by sufficient duration ”in relation to age” and regularity (How Much Sleep. 2018). Loss of sleep cannot be replenished by oversleeping.
Young children ages six through thirteen are recommended to sleep nine through eleven hours each night. Parents are usually have a higher influence on their children during these ages; therefore kids often receive the needed amount to support their rapid mental and physical development. As they grow into adolescence, ages fourteen through eighteen, parental control decreases (How Much Sleep, 2018). Teenagers begin to learn how to care for themselves without the proper information to fully understand what their developing bodies require to achieve ideal performance. More often than not they will neglect the needed eight to ten hours of sleep and later the signs of fatigue.
Sleep deprivation is a common occurance and can be caused by many factors in high school students. The balance of an active schedule and a healthy sleeping schedule is a delicate matter most often forgotten in societies (such as western) that prioritize productivity. At times, sleep deprivation can be the result of the environment in which the student is residing in. Environmental factors are oftentimes have a easier path to resolve them. This includes, but is not limited to, extensive time with screen based devices, hectic schedules, light exposure, and conditioned arousal around sleep areas. Excluding environment, the body itself can also be the cause for a lack of sleep. Biological factors can are most often harder to remedy and require extensive periods of treatment. Some examples of biological factors of sleep deprivation are: hormonal time shifts, a pre-developed sleep or psychiatric disorder, conditions associated with respiration/chronic pain and some medication.
Immediate effects of sleep deprivation in young adults can include: impulsive behavior, memory and cognitive impairment , daytime fatigue, irritability, and anxiety. The American National Sleep Foundation found that by the 12th grade, 75% of students reported sleep durations of less than eight hours per night. Poor physical and academic performance ”as well as drowsiness behind the wheel ”have been attributed to inadequate sleep. Irritability and impulsive behavior can lead to stressed professional and personal relationships as well as stunted social development. As these young adults are becoming active in their community, the effect of sleep deprivation is directly influencing their lives (Owens, J. 2014).
While short term sleep deprivation is limited from a few days to a couple of weeks, long term deprivation can span from several weeks to months. The impacts made from long term deprivation can have a larger impact to a teenagers health. Lower libido, psychiatric issues, weight fluctuation, increase of cortisol, and decrease in your immune systems functionality, are common symptoms found in long term cases. Although the consequences of sleep deprivation can prove to be a harsh blow to the body, they can be reversed over time.
Our fascination with the human body and its functions have expanded far and wide, sleep holds no exception.There are thousands of studies concerning sleep, going as far back as ancient egyptian times with the mention of sleep disorders. In recent studies, led by Dr. Itzhak Fried, was one of the first to reveal that a lack of sleep disrupts the ability of brain cells to communicate with each other. In this study, Fried used a group of twelve individuals who already had electrodes implanted in their brain to detect seizures. As sleep is a viable factor in the cause of seizures, these patients were forced to stay awake for several hours at a time. Accumutavly ”between all patients” the electrodes fired 15,000 brain cells. In comparison, as they grew weary the amount of brain cells stimulated decreased. Dr. Itzhak was astounded in his finding, ""Unlike the usual rapid reaction, the neurons responded slowly, fired more weakly and their transmissions dragged on longer than usual. We were fascinated to observe how sleep deprivation dampened brain cell activity"" (Schmidt, E. 2017) .
Treatment has proven to be effective in resolving the issues caused by sleep deprivation. In the case of environmental factors, most treatment involves a change in daily routine. Avoiding digital screens, stimulants such as caffeine and soft drinks, developing a comfortable sleeping environment, and creating a realistic and sustainable sleep schedule have all proven to help with the adjustment of the body. Biologically caused factors should be diagnosed and recommended treatment from a trusted physician. Some common treatments are sleep clinics, medication to induce sleep, and complementary medication.
Sleep deprivation is a common and overlooked condition especially found in highschool students. This can be caused by a multitude of environmental or biological factors such as irregular hormone levels or numerous stimulants too close to a time scheduled for sleep. Although entirely curable, this disorder can have mild to extreme symptoms ranging from daytime fatigue to strokes. Symptoms can lead to external problems, as sleep deprivation has been proven to cause poor academic and physical performance.
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Sleep Deprivation in America
Sleep deprivation is a real epidemic in America. Sleep deprivation is what happens when one decides to get less sleep then needed so they can stay up to complete a task or an assignment. Sleep deprivation effects everyone in America, you'll see it more in college students than anything. Sleep deprivation is not healthy and must be corrected and fixed. Sleep is important and we as Americans must get more of it! Our body, mind and spirit need sleep or else we can't function as an individual or a society.
One third of Americans don't get enough sleep (CDC Newsroom). Sleep loss can alter how well you function throughout the day. Sleep deprivation can also lead to many tragic accidents (Medical News). We as Americans need sleep. The American Academy of Sleep Medicine and the Sleep Research Society recommend that adults aged 18“60 years sleep at least 7 hours each night to promote optimal health and well-being. Sleeping less than seven hours per day is associated with an increased risk of developing chronic conditions such as obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, and frequent mental distress (CDC Newsroom).
After reviewing these two articles I was introduced to a lot of new information regarding sleep. I had no clue sleep was linked to so many health problems, but it makes sense. Sleep is essentially your body and mind resting and resetting itself for the next day. If you don't go to sleep how can your body ever recover from all that it went through from the previous day? This in turn hinders your health and many other things that I had no clue about.
Sleep deprivation can negatively affect a range of systems in the body. Not getting enough sleep prevents the body from strengthening the immune system and producing more cytokines to fight infection. This can mean a person can take longer to recover from illness as well as having an increased risk of chronic illness. Sleep deprivation can also result in an increased risk of new and advanced respiratory diseases. A lack of sleep can affect body weight. Two hormones in the body, leptin and ghrelin, control feelings of hunger and satiety, or fullness. The levels of these hormones are affected by sleep. Sleep deprivation also causes the release of insulin, which leads to increased fat storage and a higher risk of type 2 diabetes. Sleep helps the heart vessels to heal and rebuild as well as affecting processes that maintain blood pressure and sugar levels as well as inflammation control. Not sleeping enough increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. Insufficient sleep can affect hormone production, including growth hormones and testosterone in men (Medical News).
This medical news article I found goes more in depth I feel like with health-related problems involving sleep. These health hazards are caused by just not getting enough sleep. After reading these articles I think back to my freshman year of college, and now realize that I was sleep deprived. From staying up till 3-4a.m. to finish assignments then going to sleep just to wake up at 7a.m. to make it to my 8a.m. class was not healthy, as well as not eating breakfast. It's scary how my health was affected during that time!
One cause of the overall sleeplessness issue is that the typical American schedule is not conducive to maintaining healthy sleep habits. We stay up late catching up on work or socializing and we get up early for work or to get the kids ready for school. Unfortunately, these hectic schedules start early with our school schedules. Teenage years are marked by a shift in natural sleep cycles toward higher function at night and less function in the early morning, yet many high school days start at or before 8:00 a.m. (Sleep Score).
This article made me realize that 8a.m. classes in college are the worst, and that a way to help teenagers now is to change the time school starts. High schoolers must make it to school by 7:45a.m. my experience with this is worse cause I rode the bus in high school. I would have to be up and out by 6:30a.m. On top of being an athlete in high school which meant late practices, my plate was full, and I needed more sleep. I believe having school start at maybe 9-10 and letting out at 3 would suffice. Also, another way to help college students, especially freshmen is to lower their workload. Many professors pile up work on freshmen with papers and projects and tests. This in turn causes these students to become sleep deprived and depressed and other health hazards.
Another cause of sleep deprivation for adults is shift worka situation where employees may have to work at night or other off-hour times. Then there are the true sleep disorders. It is estimated that 30% of American men and 12% of American women between the ages of 30 and 70, have an obstructive breathing disorder like sleep apnea, and 90% of those sufferers are undiagnosed (Sleep Score)
My brother is an example of this. He works overnight at Walmart. The overnight shift is from 11p.m. till 7a.m. I witness him sleep from the moment he gets home till he has to go back to work and he would still be tired.
More recently, the prevalence of personal electronic devices and our incessant use of them close to bedtime has also been shown to disrupt sleep. Personal electronics often use blue light to affect the brightness of the screens on our smartphones, tablets, and TVs. Exposure to bright light, particularly blue light, at night has been shown to disrupt sleep patterns (Sleep Score).
This was interesting because I cannot sleep without my tv on and I find it peculiar that this hinders sleep! I will agree to an extent that cell phones disrupt sleep because there are some nights when I can't sleep so I use my phone to watch videos to make myself tired, but it sometimes has the reverse effects and I feel more awake than ever.
Lastly, there is a lack of access to education and available treatment aids for sleep issues. Many sleep-sufferers think, well, this is just how it is, deprioritizing sleep issues as unsolvable and therefore not seeking diagnosis and treatment for their problems (Sleep Score).
I find this to be very true because I think back to how I would always say and still say it's normal for me to not have sleep. In fact, it is not normal, I think back again to my freshman year of college and I used to take melatonin to go to sleep!
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that 30 percent, or 40.6 million, of American adults are sleeping six or fewer hours a day, and night shift workers, particularly those in transportation, warehouse and health care industries are at the most risk of not getting enough sleep (Medical Daily).
The news that that 30 percent of the U.S. suffers from sleep deprivation is not surprising but, is concerning. When I think I don't believe I know anyone who gets more than 6 hours of sleep, working class America cannot afford to sleep as my dad would say. While he says that as a joke, I find that to be true according to studies and tests.
According to the CDC report, 44 percent who night shift workers got less than six hours of sleep compared to those 28.8 percent of those who work during the day. About 69.7 percent of warehouse and transportation workers and 52.3 percent of health-care and social assistance workers don't get enough sleep (Medical Daily).
Warehouse workers and transportation workers need rest! What will it take for people to see this? They must get sleep they can't go without sleep or else they'll hurt someone in their workplace or themselves. It's very dangerous to drive while tired I know this first hand, I fell asleep behind the wheel while on the highway. I went from the middle lane to the barrier in the middle in a split second. Luckily, I woke back up before anything worse happened.
Americans who work more than 40 hours a week are also less likely to get enough sleep per night, compared to those who work 40 or fewer hours. The report also indicates that people between the ages of 30 to 44 were most likely to be sleep deprived compared to other age groups (Medical Daily).
Working full time means you must give up your sanity and take on several health risks because you won't get enough sleep. That's great
Sleep deprivation is dangerous and workers who don't get enough sleep are at an increased risk of injuries that could affect them or others around them, for example the CDC estimates that 20 percent of all car crashes are caused by drowsy driving. Previous studies have linked insufficient sleep to depression (Medical Daily).
Sleep is important and we as Americans must get more of it! Our body, mind and spirit need sleep or else we can't function as an individual or a society. I found out a lot of useful information on sleep deprivation, some I already knew and some I didn't know. I will take what I know now and apply it to my life.
References
1. America's Growing Epidemic: Sleep Deprivation. SleepScore, 12 June 2018, www.sleepscore.com/americas-growing-epidemic-sleep-deprivation/.
2. CDC Newsroom. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2016/p0215-enough-sleep.html.
3. FNP, Kathleen Davis. Sleep Deprivation: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment. Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, 25 Jan. 2018, www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/307334.php.
4. Hsu, Christine. Nearly a Third of Americans Are Sleep Deprived. Medical Daily, 27 Apr. 2012, www.medicaldaily.com/nearly-third-americans-are-sleep-deprived-240273.
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Hip Hop Vs. Rock and Roll
Lady Gaga does a great job of explaining that music is one of the best ways for people of different backgrounds to connect. No matter what genre of music somebody listens to, they can be sure to find others who also love the same type of music they do. Some genres of music even blend into each other with their similarities and differences. Two genres like this are hip hop and rock music. Hip hop music and rock music have many similarities in their origins but have evolved to have many differences as well.
Differencebetween.net explains that rap started in the 1970s, right out of New York. The genre focused on societal issues. It was mostly performed by African American artists.
Stuart A. Kallen notes that rock and roll began with the baby boomers when they were teenagers, and it quickly became the fastest-growing form of music and absolutely changed society (8). Rock and roll focused on creating a divide, which removed its audience from everyone else. This was called the generation gap. It was provocative and pushed specific social behaviors, which was often viewed as disrespectful, thus creating a divide between generation, but a connection between the baby boomers (8). This was very different from hip hop music because hip hop was meant to unite different classes and generations through talking about the same societal struggles, while rock and roll's focus was the divide. Rock and roll was also different from hip hop because of how the music was made. Stuart A. Kallen mentions that rock and roll's main component is rhythm with a compelling beat. Its origins were in music from African tribes hundreds of years ago. African tribal music inspired the back-beats and call and response vocals, which are very popular in rock and roll. This evolved into blues, which was about bias and struggle, which also incorporated rock and roll (11).
Hip hop music and rock music have many similarities in their origins but have evolved to have many differences as well. Hip hop began in the late nineties, after rock and roll became popularized in the fifties and sixties. The culture surrounding the genres are also unlike in the ways that one is about a generational gap and the other is about uniting an entire group of people. However, there are many similarities in these genres as well. Such as writing songs about struggles people were facing.
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Hip Hop and it’s Relation to Lyrical and Musical Plagiarism and Copyright Laws
Plagiarism, as defined in the Oxford English dictionary, is the action of taking someone else's work and pretending it is your own work [1]. Musical plagiarism has gone through many perceptions from the earlier centuries to the recent times. Musical plagiarism can occur lyrically or instrumentally, when someone steals someone else's components and represents it as his or her own. One of the first instances of plagiarism was during the times shortly after Mozart and Beethoven, where the similar ideas that first occurred to them were used in the songs by composers Mendelssohn and Wagner. Since the world was convinced of the integrity of these men, they weren't charged with plagiarism and the similarities were considered to be pure chance resemblance [2]. In the 20th Century, plagiarism became more noticeable and the concept of chance resemblance was no longer feasible. The legal concept of copyright law was established to promote science and the useful arts. The music industry also falls into the purview of the copyright laws. Internet is a double edged sword in the music industry. On one hand it has popularized many genres of music and increased accessibility to larger variety of music. But on the other hand it has become easy for music to be copied without paying homage to the original artist. This paper proposes the argument: As long as homage and credit are given to the original creators, nothing is plagiarized. An early example on unethical usage and clear case of plagiarism where the system did not react legally or economically is illustrated along with the landmark case where copyright laws were applied in the hip hop industry and its impact are used to illustrate the thesis of the paper and propose the intended opinion.
Plagiarism ambiguity in Hip Hop
Hip Hop first began as an underground culture in New York City in the 1970s and one of the important factors in its origin is Deejaying. DJ's such as Kool Herc found various ways to edit and sample the music they were playing, with the help of turntables, so that it would be more appealing to their audiences. This was followed by the addition of spoken word elements to the music, with the usage of the microphone, which became known as MC-ing. Various artists such as Afrika Bambaata and Grandmaster Flash created pioneering works both audibly and vocally [3]. Then, the drum machine began to be commonly used in hip hop production (thanks to Bambaata) and this pioneered the process of beat making in hip hop. This was later accompanied by the usage of the sampler and the synthesizer which could be used to sample music more efficiently [4]. From then on, hip hop opened many opportunities for the creation of new music based on previous musical work. But some of these opportunities brought about controversy. Deejaying(sampling) in particular, is an integral element of hip hop. While sampling, hip-hop producers usually insert segments of recorded music into what they are creating. They also truncate samples to take only the useful sections and syncopate the sample so that it loops throughout the entire song. Sampling can be done instrumentally or lyrically. Powerful juxtapositions were created by hip-hop producers by re-combining and re-contextualizing sources [5]. A good example of re-contextualizing is the famous words from the All in the family sitcom about a white American bigot, Those were the days. These words were sampled into the Digital Tears song by GM Grimm. Grimm used these lyrics to convey a black man's world of crime, drugs, prison, and desperation. The context of the original source to the one that it was used in is completely different. Hip-hop sampling is not mere cutting and pasting existing material into your creation, but to redefine it to suit your context and musical creation.
In hip hop, plagiarism is defined as stealing another person's unpublished lyrics or instrumental production without giving them any credit. To equate sampling with plagiarism is not acceptable, because sampling uses the sources to create new meanings. Sampling is done with published musical work, but the introduction of the legal concept of copyright introduces more complexity in the distinction between sampling and plagiarism.
The famous philosopher Michael Foucault stated that he did not use quotations or citations from the previous famous philosophers (eg: Marx) when he used their arguments to build his own ones in a recognizable manner. He expected the reader to be familiar with those arguments and be able to recognize them when they are read [5]. Similarly, sampling in hip hop is intended for the listener to recognize the effort to create new music that is inspired by old music. Hip Hop producers and MC's clearly do not intend to steal other people's work and not give them any credit, but controversies can still arise due to copyright law. Hip hop culture is fosters on this ethical code of sampling from within the community.
Copyright, which first originated in 1640 in Great Britain, is a form of property which can be bought and sold like any other. If a new work is to be built from a previous one, the previous work must be purchased in the sense that its original creator must permit the new creator to use his work in the building of his work [6]. Sampling infringes the copyrights on the original composition which involve whether licensing the sample from the copyright holders or risking legal action. In order to prevent legal implication, the new artist needs to use pre-cleared samples or needs to get copyrights from the original artist for its usage. Copyrights need to be obtained for the musical composition and the sound recording from the songwriter and the production house.
In the early 2000's the creation of the internet added more ambiguity and complexity to this matter. This is owing to the fact that various materials are easily available to any user. Artists can easily upload their creations and these creations can be conveniently found by other artists who are looking for sources. Certain Websites like Youtube have become the common destination for new artist to find samples. Since the emergence of MP3 files, a significant amount of music can be freely downloaded by a wide variety of users at no charge, and so the process of piracy has become considerably more widespread. Musical content is occasionally available at a significantly low price from platforms such as Spotify (paid subscription) and Amazon (purchase) [7]. To prevent copyright violations and plagiarism, certain artists such as Jay-Z remove their musical work from these platforms and distribute their work from their own platforms at higher prices along with copyright license agreement.
Illustrative cases
This paper illustrates two cases with each attempting to show the evolution of hip-hop culture with respect to sampling and plagiarism. Hip hop music is so dependent on sampling, and making it artist's version of music and expression. Since sampling was an accepted norm in hip-hop this example though being a clear cut case on plagiarism in the hip hop industry was not acted upon legally: The Grandmaster Caz and The Sugarhill gang. Rapper's Delight was a great hip hop success and was created by a house band called the Sugarhill Gang. The Sugarhill Gang was made up of three MCs who had no street credibility. Sylvia Robinson (the owner of Sugarhill Records) put the group together. . Hank, who became a member of the Sugarhill Gang used to be the manager of Grandmaster Caz's (then known as Casanova Fly) hip hop group 'The Mighty Force', stole the lyrics from a book given to him by Grandmaster Caz and repeated the same words in the second verse of the Sugarhill gang's 'Rapper's Delight'. Such unauthorized borrowing of lyrics is abhorrence in hip hop culture, referred to pejoratively as biting.[3] The second verse of rapper's delight was made by inauthentic practices. These unethical method falls into the exact definition of plagiarism. Even though people within the hip hop community did not approve of this, 'Rapper's Delight' demand with the audience became clear due to its compelling, fresh and controversial approach. This paved hip hop and rap music into a fungible commodity, where the boundaries of plagiarism are obscure.
The second example is focused on the court case which shook the hip hop industry and created new norms in the copyright world for hip-hop: Grand Upright Music Limited v Warner Brothers Records. In this case, the hip hop artist Biz Markie was sued by the singer Gilbert O' Sullivan for sampling his song 'Alone Again (Naturally). This was a sad song about the death of his parents which featured the piano predominantly. Biz Markie took the harmonizing piano chords along with the exact sound recording from the song and overlapped it with his rap music. According to Biz Markie this was an acceptable norm in the hip-hop culture where you sample from old music. The court ruled that sampling without permission can qualify as copyright infringement. The judgment changed the hip hop music industry, requiring that any future music sampling be preapproved by the original copyright owners to avoid a lawsuit. [5] Judge Duffy's ruling in this case was critiqued by many and many opinioned that the judge ignored the fair use defense and categorized hip-hop sampling with theft. This ruling had the most negative view of sampling and also created a lot of limitation on new sound compositions.
Synthesis and Analysis
Prior to the historical case 'Grand Upright Music Limited v Warner Brothers Records' copyright laws on sampling was ambiguous, but this case changed these common practices. All subsequent cases on copyright infringement which were levied against hip hop artists concluded that the hip hop artist willfully broke the law due to sampling practices. Nothing about sampling really mattered; the power got shifted into the copyright holder hands. This had a major impact on the creative nature of hip hop music. Using multiple sources became economically infeasible. So people stopped using expensive sources and started moving to more unconventional and less popular sources. The distinction between plagiarism and paying homage is murky, with these kinds of sources. It is important that we pay due attribution to the sources, without overly impacting the economical feasibility.
The real battle is between creativity and the impact of attributions. The impact of attributions is both legal and economical. After the landmark copyright case, the economic impact of copyright has had negative impacts on the profit making of hip hop creations. Previously, artists used to have multiple layers of sources and this approach is no longer feasible at least economically. Major label artists have to take in the bureaucratic and financial cost of sample clearance and that is included into the creative process. Credit should be given to the artist where it is due and that is unquestionable. But the economical implications need to be reasonable. Today the cost to source from big artist has become very high that is the reason artist are refraining themselves from using popular sources. Big artists like Kanye West who are influential in sampling culture are being sloppy with securing permission for their samples. Kayne West uses obscure samples without giving any acknowledgement to the original artist. Many artists struggle with this issue of giving credit. Popular hip-hop artists are trying to evade legal obligations as there is no well defined process to legally clear samples. This is happening because something is seriously broken in the system.
There are an increased number of people who have turned to become consumers producing their own creations distributing music online. This has increased the availability of music online. This increased consumption and creation has led to a boarder and highly visible practice of sampling. The internet culture of consumption and creation has added to challenges for the copyright law. There are two ways in which music is distributed in the digital era. One is downloading and other is streaming. Since both these forms require a copy of the musical file to be downloaded either into the hard disk or the memory, the concept of ownership and usage starts to get obscure and leading to copyright violations. Distribution of these files without the copyright owner's permission on the internet is a common practice. Clear case of infringement is when digital mp3 files are used to create new music without giving due homage to the original artist. Copyright laws are more complex in this digital age, because the concept of work is more abstract. New copyright law like the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 provides civil and criminal remedies against those who circumvent technological safeguards and tamper with copyright management information[11]. Since Hip Hop has gone global in the digital age, artists can now take inspiration from anywhere in the world and overlap is inevitable. Regional flows have now transcended due to hip hop's growth. Technology changes more rapidly than the laws, inevitably internet technology is going to continue to cause unforeseen problems and complications in the hip hop industry.
The fundamental need for copyright law is to recognize the contribution of the original owner and provide incentive for the creation of new works. A new concept of free culture by Lawrence Lessig and his company Creative Commons is streamlining the process of sampling clearing and therefore benefiting hip-hop artists. Artists can choose from a set of free licenses which range from one time use to continued usage as long as homage and due credit is given to the original artist. Creative Commons aims to build a movement of consumers and producerswho help build the public domain, and, by their work, demonstrate the importance of the public domain to other creativity (Lessig 283)[10]. An important aspect about free culture public domain is it works under the current copyright law. It is a great positive step that provides homage and credit to the original artist and at the same time does not restrict the artist in expressing their artistic message.
Conclusion
Large music companies have taken it upon themselves to act as gatekeepers for the hip hop industry. They are continuing to litigate any copyright infringement. This monitoring, though required, works adversely when it hinders the creative and innovative process of sampling. Economic infeasibility has made some producers limit their sampling sources and some producers have innovated new techniques to hide, transform and re-contextualize their samples. Hip-hop culture is based on the creation of new music using inspiration from old music and there is great sense of collective work in this community. The hip-hop community works under internal sampling ethics, where due credit and homage is given to the original artist. The specific rules of ethics differ from one artist to another, but they continue to work under one ethical codeto pay due respect and attribution to the artist. Copyright laws need to be in place to enforce the rights of ownership, but reforms are needed in these laws, so the artists are not overburdened by legal and economical implications of these laws. The hip-hop artist need to have free culture and independence to source and work towards creating new, innovative, creative, and exciting music. Stealing lyrics is outright plagiarism but borrowing cadence and delivery is different. Sampling sounds and taking inspiration from older music is as hip-hop as rhyming and lyrics itself.
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Comparison of Utilitarianism and Emotivism
- Utilitarianism & Emotivism
- Section 1 - Ethical Theories
- Utilitarianism. General Beliefs
- Utilitarianism - Standards-Setter
- Utilitarianism Applied to
- Utilitarianism- Cultural Displays
- Utilitarianism- Strengths
- Utilitarianism- Weaknesses
- Utilitarianism- Personal View
- Emotivism- General Beliefs
- Emotivism- Standards-Setter
- Emotivism- Applied to
- Emotivism- Cultural Displays
- Emotivism- Strengths
- Emotivism- Weaknesses
- Emotivism- Personal Ideas
- Section 2- Ethical Applications
- Utilitarianism- Abortion
- Emotivism- Abortion
- Utilitarianism- Euthanasia
- Emotivism- Euthanasia
- Utilitarianism- Capital Punishment
- Emotivism- Capital Punishment
- Conclusion
Utilitarianism & Emotivism
The first question which was ever asked by the conscious man was, perhaps, what is right and what is wrong. Today, thousands of years later, we struggle still with that very idea. One may find their truth in their own lifetime, but as they die their truth does not remain, rather, the question is born anew with the next generation, and only remnants of their conclusions linger. And so, I explore what is right and wrong, here, in 2018, at the University of Southern Indiana, since I cannot accept the answers of my forefathers without my own questionings. Thinkers of old tell us of things like Utilitarianism and Emotivism. They tried, through these theories, to teach us how to handle the trials of life, such as abortion, capital punishment, and euthanasia. Now, though, I will sift through a few of the theories which seek to describe our being, Utilitarianism and Emotivism, and find what they may tell us today of abortion, capital punishment, and euthanasia.
Section 1 - Ethical Theories
Utilitarianism. General Beliefs
Utilitarianism is the belief that what is right is the course which provides the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. That, of itself, is a very broad statement, which philosophers have broken down into two main flavors. There is act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism states that what is right for the greatest number of people should be considered for each circumstance from a point of view which is independent of any pre-standing laws or moral conceptions. Rule utilitarianism differs in that it considers what is right in a circumstance to be not only governed by what will provide the greatest good, but also by what follows the laws of man or generally accepted moral rules. The main tenant of utilitarianism is that the pleasure of one must be sacrificed for the pleasure of many (Driver, 2009).
Utilitarianism - Standards-Setter
The moral compass of Utilitarianism is set by the quantity of good of one path versus another. Specifically, hedonic calculus, laid out by Jeremy Benthall, is intended to calculate the overall good of one decision versus another. By deriving which path will cause the greatest good, not just good for oneself and family, the right and moral path can be chosen (Driver, 2009).
Utilitarianism Applied to
Utilitarianism, both the Act and Rule sects, is viewed to apply to all people, everywhere, throughout history. No one is exempt from the utilitarian rule of choosing the greatest good for the greatest number of people. There has never been a king, nor beggar, who should have not first considered the well-being of the masses before eating his bread. Utilitarianism is all encompassing (Smart, 1961).
Utilitarianism- Cultural Displays
It was with great risk during the Holocaust, that certain brave and utilitarian citizens of Germany, and their controlled lands, risked their own lives to preserve those of the persecuted Jewish people. The harboring of the Jews, an act which would fall under Act Utilitarianism since it disobeyed the laws of the land at that time, was an act which forgot the happiness of the individual in order to give small happiness to the many hiding Jews, and thus was a grand example of utilitarianism. Also, one must recall one of the greatest stories ever told, that of King Leonidas and his 300 (more like a couple thousand) Spartans and how they sacrificed themselves to slow the Persian advance so the rest of the country could prepare. This act fulfilled the wishes of the utilitarian Greeks, who wanted nothing more than to sacrifice themselves, to preserve the larger population back home. In fact, that's what the entire Spartan military was based around.
Utilitarianism- Strengths
One of the greatest strengths of utilitarianism is that it is a simple idea, almost intuitive, that everyone can understand and apply in their own life if they so choose. Another strength is that it protects the little guy. Utilitarianism does not consider the difference between people, it just states, if people are involved, pick the path that hands out as much happiness as possible.
Utilitarianism- Weaknesses
Utilitarianism has quite a few weaknesses, here are some of the big ones. The absolute biggest is that it puts too much focus on happiness. Happiness, in and of itself, is a silly goal, because life will occasionally make us unhappy no matter what we do, so it's good to focus on some other aspects of life aside from just being happy. Life upsetting our happiness brings us to the next weakness; how can we predict the future? The whole idea of decision making in Utilitarianism is that one chooses the path most likely to bring about the most happiness. Life doesn't usually run with our plans, though, and many times a decision we might think is great, ends up making people miserable (Williams, 1973).
Utilitarianism- Personal View
I agree with most of what Utilitarianism expresses, however, I disagree strongly when it attempts to be universal. Sometimes, the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people must be ignored, and I detest the idea of sacrificing a few for the many as a rule of thumb. It is a dangerous game when we indulge the human lust for happiness, sure Benthall tried to compensate for this obvious flaw by chiding not to lust after things of the flesh, but I believe that we should lust after nothing too greatly, even happiness, that goes against the rule of moderation. We should learn to endure the low points and the struggle, so we might better appreciate the happiness when it comes. And, the idea of giving humans the happiness they always desire is dangerous to the natural world. I'm sure many people would be quite happy to have their own beach house on the Galapagos Islands, but at what cost to nature would that human happiness come? As a general guideline, though, Utilitarianism does very well. In day to day choices, by all means, aim for the greatest happiness, but be weary of the exceptions.
Emotivism- General Beliefs
Emotivism argues that one cannot claim that anything ir moral or immoral, because their response to an issue is based only on their emotional response, not any certain morality. The guiding phrase of Emotivism is Only statements that can be verified empirically can be true or false. This quote was originally said by A.J. Ayer, one of the founders and contributors to the philosophy of emotivism. His statement essentially means that there can be no truth or falseness in a moral claim since either direction cannot be proven empirically (Satris, 1987).
Emotivism- Standards-Setter
The idea of Emotivism essentially leaves no room for anything being moral or immoral. When a person deems an action wrong, or immoral, a subscriber to emotivism simply replies that their reaction is only an emotional response to the matter at hand. The claim is that there is no solid basis in science behind one's reaction to an immoral act, therefore, any reaction had by a personal is irrational and cannot be forced upon another person (Satris, 1987).
Emotivism- Applied to
Emotivism applies to everyone, in that no one can make a claim of morality or immorality. The theory holds all people equal in that no one can prove whether or not their own feelings are true for everyone, therefore they cannot be true at all (Stoljar, 1993).
Emotivism- Cultural Displays
It is quite difficult to find examples of a society working off an Emotivist schematic since it is quite difficult to have a society in which everyone can do what they want. However, one such example could be the golden triangle of Southeast Asia, where between gang members, there is no moral judgement cast, only the necessity to carry out their jobs. Another such example were the Mongols which once ruled the Eurasian steppe. As they carried out their raids upon neighboring kingdoms, little to no moral compass guided the warriors, all aversion to the slaughter was seen as cowardice, which could be seen as an emotional response and not a moral call.
Emotivism- Strengths
One of the greatest strengths of emotivism is that the theory includes all people and considers them equal in their inability to cast moral judgement. Another strong quality of the theory is that it does not restrict people too tightly, it allows for a great deal of freedom in what people are morally allowed to do.
Emotivism- Weaknesses
Emotivism has many weaknesses. The most damning of these weaknesses is the fact that emotivism fails to consider the arguments which can be debated scientifically as well as morally, regardless of one's emotional response, such as abortion. Another very large issue is that if no one can say what is right or wrong, then no one can punish another for their actions, and, therefore, people are free to run about and do whatever they please, and what is left is total anarchy.
Emotivism- Personal Ideas
I believe that Emotivism is a completely preposterous idea. The notion that there is no inherent moral code in mankind is completely ridiculous. Emotivism ignores thousands and thousands of years of human experience and survival that teaches us the best way to survive. I believe this development is what we call morals and emotivism throws it all away to place the moral heart of humanity in the hands of our most flippant attribute, emotions! The moral code of man has, for the most part, stood for hundreds of years, yet our emotions blow as the breeze changes. Emotivism has gone out of style in recent years, and I think that is no less than it merits.
Section 2- Ethical Applications
Utilitarianism- Abortion
Abortion is the action of killing and removing an unborn fetus from the mother's womb. This practice is carried out all over the world for several reasons, some of the most common among these are as follows; a lack of financial capabilities, incest, rape, and also just not wanting to have a child. Utilitarianism would possibly condone abortion if the act would make more people happy than just one person. Using hedonic calculus, the unhappiness of the fetus not being born would have to be compensated by more than just the mother's life being made easier. Perhaps, if both the father and mother felt their lives would be better without having the child, then Utilitarianism would approve of abortion.
Emotivism- Abortion
Abortion, as stated above, is the killing and removal of an unborn fetus. Emotivism would most certainly approve of abortion. The theory would argue that anyone who thinks abortion is morally wrong because it is the killing of a fetus, is simply repulsed by the idea of it and is emotionally disgusted. The emotivist would tell a woman debating an abortion to go for it, since there is no proof that what she is doing is wrong to begin with.
Utilitarianism- Euthanasia
Euthanasia is the killing of person who wishes to pass. A person wishing for euthanasia may want it for a number of reasons. One could desire it because of an illness, old age, or depression. There are also many different flavors of euthanasia, but for this paper we will focus upon voluntary euthanasia. The debate comes with whether it is ethical for a doctor, who has taken the Hippocratic Oath to never do harm, to force the passing of a human being. The utilitarian thinker would not approve of euthanasia if the subject had many loved ones that would be devastated at their passing since that is happiness for one, but unhappiness for many. However, if the subject was alone and would not be missed, Utilitarianism would smile upon euthanasia as a very morally righteous deed.
Emotivism- Euthanasia
Euthanasia, as was stated above, is the killing of a patient who desires death. Since emotivism does not concern itself with the morality of breaking the Hippocratic Oath, or making loved ones unhappy, it would have no problem with euthanasia being a perfectly acceptable thing to do. Euthanasia would not be moral under the theory, since nothing is, but it would be acceptable.
Utilitarianism- Capital Punishment
Capital punishment is the government ordered execution of a criminal of the highest order. It is the greatest sentence that US courts are capable of handing out, and that is not in all states, some states have banned these executions. Utilitarianism, would, however, never ban these executions. If the legal process of getting to the execution could be carried out more effectively, then capital punishment would save a lot of money for the government, which comes from tax payers' pockets. Also, capital punishment assures that a heinous criminal will never be free again. These factors considered, Utilitarianism would approve of capital punishment.
Emotivism- Capital Punishment
Capital Punishment, as covered previously, is the government ordered execution of a criminal. Emotivism would chuckle at the idea of capital punishment being immoral. Under emotivism, it cannot be proved that even killing an innocent is morally wrong, so the killing of a murderer is just given free game. The theory would say to anyone that doesn't agree with killing that they just have weak stomachs for the matter and are therefore just having negative emotions about the matter
Conclusion
In this paper I have discussed the ethical theories of Emotivism and Utilitarianism, and their applications to the matters of abortion, euthanasia, and capital punishment. Through writing on the subject, I have formed my own picture of Utilitarianism. The picture looks like this; Utilitarianism is a middle-aged woman, I see my mother, who can't help but be a people pleaser. She tries so hard to make as many people as possible happy, that she ends up making bad choices and neglecting herself and those that are most important to her. I'm afraid that utilitarianism falls into this trap. It is too focused on providing the maximum amount of happiness to always protect what is truly important. However, most of the time, like a people pleaser, utilitarianism handles itself well and is able to provide good for many. Emotivism, however, has painted quite a gloomy image of itself in my mind. One can probably gather from my examples of who has used Emotivism in the sections above, but I can see no decent group of people agreeing with emotivism. Notice I say decent people, and I define these decent people as people having great value to themselves and their fellow man, and caring for what is important in life, and living in a compassionate way. But Emotivism comes to close to promoting the opposite of a decent moral life for me to care for it at all.
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What do we Know about Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism
- How is “good” determined: By what is best for the greatest number of people and by those consequences.
- Most Noted Philosopher (s): Jeremy Bentham & Stuart Mill
- Major Strengths: Encouraging all human welfare and the end-justifies-the-means.
- Major Weaknesses: Finding all the consequences for all in society is complex. When do the end-justifies-the-means for all in society?
Ethical Egoism
- How is “good” determined: By Self-interest and what will serve that person and solely that person.
- Most Noted Philosopher (s): Epicurus
- Major Strengths: Every person ought to carry out in self-interest no matter what the outcome. Encourages individual freedom and responsibility for their actions.
- Major Weaknesses: Contradictory to one’s own self-interest when related too all in society. Cannot show a consistent method of dealing with conflicts with others.
Ethics of Care
- How is “good” determined: The theory that caring for others and sensitivity to others is important for a moral life.
- Most Noted Philosopher (s): Carol Gilligan
- Major Strengths: One should carry out with caring and compassion in all actions. A person should constantly consider others and the consequences of their actions towards them early.
- Major Weaknesses: May lead others to look at gender as a system to the guide as too who is best and not perfect equality of gender. May only change one incomplete theory with another incomplete theory.
Kantianism
- How is “good” determined: Look at what’s good no matter what the consequences are to be positive/negative.
- Most Noted Philosopher (s): Immanuel Kant
- Major Strengths: Must be logical and not self-contradictory. Must still be effective to create a universal rule for all in society.
- Major Weaknesses: Works not to define away exceptions in every situation when competing obligations begin. Establishing what one can create a comprehensive rule for without exceptions.
Prima facie Duties
- How is “good” determined: It is a person's moral obligation to perform various duties in society and they must serve those duties.
- Most Noted Philosopher (s): Sir William David Ross
- Major Strengths: Determine the act with the highest duties too societal duties. Do the act which has the highest degree for right over wrong.
- Major Weaknesses: Difficulty in figuring out what is always the most significant social duty. When does one duty outweigh another duty?
Divine Command Theory
- How is “good” determined: Moral principles set down by a higher power or God/Goddess stating what is appropriate/unacceptable.
- Most Noted Philosopher (s): St Augustine
- Major Strengths: An all-powerful and all-knowing being/beings have set rules/commandments for a man to serve in any situation. By observing those rules/commandments they will have rewards in another life.
- Major Weaknesses: Difficulty showing proof there is a supernatural world. Inability to prove those higher powers will reward someone.
Virtue Theory
- How is “good” determined: By a human being’s own character as a person.
- Most Noted Philosopher (s): Aristotle and Confucius
- Major Strengths: An exceptional character will require you to serve honorable accomplishments in life. By doing noble actions one will strive to be an honorable person with a full or accomplished life.
- Major Weaknesses: Seeking to verify if an individual does have a goal or purpose to exist. Convincing or not if humans are created with morals implanted or are, they picked up from events in development.
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The Act of Utilitarianism
Our actions in everyday situations and scenarios result in either good or bad results. They are based on our own moral observations for what's right and wrong. The theory of Utilitarianism applies to most people's lives based on personal moral decisions that focus on the positive outcomes it produces. In the article Famine, Affluence, and Morality by Peter Singer, he argues that if it is in our power to prevent something bad from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything of comparable moral importance, we ought, morally, to do it. Singer applies utilitarianism as a main ethical theory in his argument to further his point of view in the article.
In an opposing view of distinctions between moral obligations, the article Act Utilitarianism: Account of Right-Making Characteristics or Decision-Making Procedure? by Eugene Bales, he argues the importance of maintaining a sharp distinction between decision making procedures, and accounts of what make right acts right. Bales challenges and argues the fact of applying act utilitarianism theory to moral situations and is a weak way to establish a problem occuring. By identifying the use of Utilitarianism in these two articles, one can distinguish which argument is more prevalent to their moral obligations and decisions. As Singer begins his argument in the article Famine, Affluence, and Morality, he first informs and puts the reader in a position where they are reminded of the suffering and poverty people are going through in other countries.
Singer applies this by appealing Pathos in the beginning of the article to further his point in emotion and tragedy based on a moral viewpoint. Before Singer introduces his argument he states his assumptions and moral position in the article, following with the statement ?those who disagree read no further.' This establishes a firm standpoint in where Singer stands in his argument, because it shows that he values the importance of your moral position and your use of time. Singer shows that we in affluent countries like the U.S. have a moral obligation to give away more than we actually do in international aid for famine relief. He thinks we need to alter our way of life in order to help others. Furthermore, Singer has two main premises in his argument to further his conclusion. His first premises is, I can prevent people dying from starvation by giving more money to famine relief than I do. This leads to his second premises, By giving more money to famine relief than I do, I would not be sacrificing anything morally significant. Which leads on to Singer's conclusion for the argument, Therefore, I should give more to famine relief than I do.
Singer uses examples such as scenarios and giving to charity as strong inductive generalizations in his argument. He did this to target the majority of the population's similar moral values towards this issue. The sample used in this argument is the U.S. population, which gives very diverse and biased elements that makes a strong generalization in the argument. As a Utilitarian, Singer believes the purpose of morality is to make life better by increasing good things and habits, such as pleasure and happiness, in the world. Singer uses charity as an example, because most of the population's moral generalizations in giving to charity is looked and acted upon in a wrongful way. In the article, (pg. 8 paragraph 2) Singer gives a rhetorical analogy on the distinction between duty and charity as he states, The outcome of this argument is that our traditional moral categories are upset. In other words, Singer wants to emphasize that charity is seen as another form of duty from a moral standpoint of most of the population. This definitely is not the right way to have a utilitarian view, because they do not focus on the real moral importance of giving only based on the positive outcome to others, but only focusing on the positive outcome for themselves. Furthermore, Singer's argument is not only intended to appeal to utilitarians, but also to anyone who agrees and sided with the premises of the argument.
In contrast towards a Utilitarian view, Eugene Bales argues on the distinction between decision making procedures and what makes right acts right to further his claim that applying a utilitarian act is not necessary. In the article Act Utilitarianism: Account of Right-Making Characteristics or Decision-Making Procedure? by Eugene Bales, he starts by stating his personal intentions to further his position and make his argument clear for the reader. Bales begins with an effective use of rhetorical strategy while presenting his argument. By attacking the analogy, Bales shows the decision making process distinction, and in what makes right acts right are not always similar to applying an act of Utilitarianism theory. As Bales attacks the analogy of utilitarianism and act-utilitarianism, he also evaluates the Utilitarian concepts and guidelines to properly distinguish claims made from act-utilitarianism. For example, he mentions how act-utilitarians apply rules where there are guidelines to their behavior, known as the rules-of-thumb. Bales claims that the rules in no sense are determinative of the rightness or wrongness of acts.
The rules-of-thumb generally shift the problem, because a utilitarian has to decide either to follow the rules-of-thumb or calculate and plan a response in the most valid way based on the situation. Bales also mentions how a response based on how a utilitarian response should be could be absolute no help to the person in the situation. In the article, (page 5 paragraph 2) he gives an example of a question and a response from a utilitarian, Ought I in this case to use enough gas and electricity to keep my home warm? As a Utilitarian a response has to generally be a positive or helpful outcome in where someone gains something from it. Response from a utilitarian being If and only if doing so would maximize utility. This response is identified as unhelpful and not what the person who asked the question wanted to know. Their response has not told us whether using gas or electricity would be less than not using them.
Furthermore, Bales concentrates on the distinction between ethical theories seen as right-making and decision-making procedures, because the act-utilitarian theory isn't identified clearly and is stated in a weak form. In conclusion, Peter Singer and Eugene Bales give well founded and understandable arguments in different points of view on Utilitarianism. I personally identify myself as a Utilitarian, because I agree with the moral values and generalizations as I continue to understand and apply the theory in my life today. Thus, I have to agree with Peter Singer's view on Utilitarianism and claims made in his article Famine, Affluence, and Morality. His rhetorical devices helped further his argument based on his structure and reasoning towards the issue. Singer's premises made it clear and easy to understand his viewpoint on famine and morality connecting to a strong stated conclusion. In some aspects on act-utilitarianism from Eugene Bales article, Act Utilitarianism: Account of Right-Making Characteristics or Decision-Making Procedure?, I can come to an agreement with, but his overall standpoint and structure of the article made it hard to follow.
As I read the article I felt that I have been reading the same content and claims but in different wording. Furthermore, the act of Utilitarianism applies to most people's lives based on personal moral decisions that focus on the positive outcomes it produces. By identifying the use of Utilitarianism in these two articles, one can distinguish which argument is more prevalent to their moral obligations and decisions. One's morality plays a huge role in their everyday decision making processes, it's only up to you in how morally important it is from what's right and wrong in your life.
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Government Surveillance from Perspective of Utilitarianism
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Utilitarianism: a Perfect Theory
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An In-Depth Analysis of Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a well-known and influential moral theory that considers a choice to be the most ethical when it produces the greatest good for most people. This maximization of happiness is the determining factor in whether an action should be considered ethical. Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism: that the right action is understood entirely by consequences produced (Driver, 2014). Morality isn't judged by set of ethical standards; There are no innate rights and wrongs (Jones, 2013). Actions are deemed wrong when they cause more harm, and right when they maximize happiness. There are two different schools of thought regarding Utilitarianism, that distinguish between individual actions and types of actions. Act utilitarianism is concerned with the effects of specific individual actions whereas rule utilitarianism focuses more on the effects of types of actions such as bribery or theft (Nathanson, n.d.). While different in focus, both agree on the basic tenants of utilitarianism.
Most of the early teachings of Utilitarianism is owed to Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Their theory has had a major impact both on philosophical work in moral theory and on approaches to economic, political, and social policy (Nathanson, n.d.). Utilitarianism adopts a teleological approach to ethics, which argues that actions are judged by their consequences. Therefore, actions are not inherently good or bad. They are assigned a moral value by the result (Sheppard, 2011).
The practical application of utilitarianist teachings is both widespread and controversial. One of the most fundamental aspects of Utilitarianism is how it applies to political groups and public policies as well as the behavior of organizations and corporate entities (Nathanson, n.d.). Bentham, one of the foremost utilitarianisms, thought that it was important to focus on discovering which actions and policies maximize the well-being of a specific group. And today, this is a common application of the theory. It allows us to view actions of countries, companies and individuals from a micro and macroeconomic level, and evaluate the morality of their decision and actions.
One Nation Under Walmart
A recognized brand by virtually everyone, Walmart has firmly established its place in the American zeitgeist. If Walmart were a country it would be one of the top thirty economies in the world (Snyder, 2015). On the surface, the story of Walmart as the embodiment of the American Dream and an example of the possibilities that capitalism can provide. It is a storybook fairytale; a family from Bentonville, Arkansas pulling themselves up by their bootstraps and creating one of the largest companies in the world. It is hard to not be fascinated and enthralled by this story. In a fascinating deep dive into the lore and impact of this success, One Nation Under Walmart exposes the high social costs that accompany Walmart's super low prices. The scale at which Walmart now operates is not going unnoticed, and journalist Terry McNarry shows that communities are starting to take notice and aren't going to just roll-over and acquiesce to the Big Box Brand.
The fact that Walmart offers such lower prices at an immense scale is not a result of sheer luck. Ultimately, there is a point at which what Walmart is doing to accomplish these feats must be critiqued and analyzed. While it may be argued that the overall impact of being able to offer low prices is the best thing for communities and people not only in the United States but around the world, the answer to this is not a simple yes or no. Is Walmart's path to market domination ethical? Through the lens of a utilitarianist, it is important to analyze the benefits and the costs of Walmart's domination.
With a Utilitarian perspective in mind, by taking only the fact that Walmart's strategies allow consumers to purchase items a considerable discount, then the answer to Walmart's ethical dilemma may seem fairly clear: while its low-cost approach and aggressive growth strategy can put a strain on local communities, and have some negative effects, one must look at the end result; low prices for everyone that allow less-advantage families to purchase necessities. This is clearly a positive result, as a utilitarianist would view this as justification for deeming Walmart's approach as ethical. However, the multitude of social problems caused by Walmart's dominance bring to light a company with a strategy that a utilitarianist would consider unethical.
The social costs of Walmart's low prices are ubiquitous and highlight that low prices wreak havoc for poorer communities and have notable labor and environmental sustainability problems. While low costs may help poorer communities purchase necessary items, doing so can further suppress the communities that the low prices are supposed to help. In turn, the benefit of low prices is only truly realized by those with moderate to high wealth. According to study by the Democratic Staff of the U.S. Committee on Education and the Workforce, Walmart's low-wage workers cost U.S. taxpayers an estimated $6.2 billion in public assistance including food stamps, Medicaid and subsidized housing (1) (O'Conner, 2014). "It found that a single Walmart Supercenter cost taxpayers between $904,542 and $1.75 million per year, or between $3,015 and $5,815 on average for each of 300 workers." (1) (O'Conner, 2014).
These statistics are immediately concerning. If being able to offer low prices causes a disproportionate amount of people to suffer, then what is the true benefit? The biggest issue is the sheer size of Walmart. To fully understand the impact of Walmart, consider that In the U.S. alone, a full tenth of the country's retail workers are employed by Walmart, and they make an average of $8.81 an hour (2) (Smiley, 2014). This wage isn't enough to live a quality life. It is fair to point out that Walmart does provide an astronomical amount of jobs, with a current US workforce at about 1.5 million (14). But taking into account that Costco, one of Walmart's biggest rivals, pays its workers an average of $17 per hour, these statistics aren't as impressive (Chandorkar, 2018).
Walmart is a sprawling, unrivaled enterprise that wields considerable power. And this largely unchecked power isn't easy to challenge.
Taking the benefits of super low prices at face value may seem like a done deal; everyone benefits. Therefore, Walmart's actions would be considered ethical since low prices help everybody. However, it is important to analyze all the consequences and not just the easily noticeable and positive consequences. Low prices are simply one result of Walmart's operations. However, assuming this is the only one that matters is not right. In addition to disenfranchising poorer communities, the hunt for the lowest prices around is having negative effects when it comes to labor and environmental sustainability (3). There is no arguing that Walmart offers the lowest prices around, and ones that are impossible for other competitors to compete with. This fosters the environment where there are incentives to cut corners, rather than establish high standards, in order to maintain a certain level of business (3). In addition, the company has been accused of unfair labor practices. Even though it publicly touts its commitment to support more small and midsize operations, the truth says a different story; one whose operations foster corporate consolidation instead (3).
At the end of the day, Walmart isn't concerned with employing practices that benefit as many people as possible. Utilitarianism permits actions that maximize happiness, and while Walmart can offer low prices, they do so at an enormous cost that only ends up hurting more. Therefore, Walmart's actions in their pursuit for the lowest prices is unethical.
Nestle and Advertising
The advertising industry is not without its fair share of concerns. One particular company of concern is Nestle and its promotion of baby formula as discussed in an ethical case study titled Nettle and Advertising by Chris Ragg. Ragg explores the cynical and exploitive nature of Nestle's advertising prices to try and get customer, especially poorer women in developing countries, to purchase baby formula instead of breastfeeding. This analysis exposes a company acting not on behalf of what is good for the most people, but what is good for the company and only them.
The Nestle corporation has been producing baby formula since 1866 and has therefore had a long-lasting impact on the market for baby formula. In the 1960s and 1970s, the aggressively marketed their baby formula products throughout the world. They conveniently shared only the benefits of the formula and neglected to mention any of the potential drawbacks of adopting formula over traditional breastfeeding methods. Their marketing campaign led many to believe that the formula is a one-for-one alternative and, as a result, had a decreased inclination to breastfeed.
At face value, this may not seem like a problem at all. Nestle was simply marketing their product heavily to increase sales. However, the company did so out of greed to drive profits. They promoted formula as an almost equal replacement for breastmilk, which virtually all doctors advise against. In most cases, doctors will advise mothers to breastfeed. Evidence has shown that Babies that are breastfed don't need any additional food or drinks for the first six months of their life and have a reduced risk of diabetes (Allhoff & Vaidya, 2008). And this is even more true for those in developing countries, where water is commonly contaminated. When baby formula is used instead, the contaminated water is mixed with the formula, which can cause diarrhea, dehydration and malnutrition and even death (Allhoff & Vaidya, 2008).
Armed with this knowledge, Nestle ignored these implications and chose to target those that were less-informed and more likely to believe Nestle and switch to formula. Although not uncommon, Nestle's marketing promotions demonstrate a clear desire to put success ahead of anything else. They acted purely in their own self-interest, commonly referred to in philosophy as ethical egoism. Ethical egoism states that morality requires people to promote their own interest (Nathanson, n.d.). However, Utilitarianists reject this concept, as decisions that promote ethical egoism are a false morality of lack morality altogether. They acted purely out of self-interest, with no consideration to, as Jeremy Bentham famously said, the greatest happiness for the greatest number (Nathanson, n.d.). The maximization principle of Utilitarianism is entirely violated here. To benefit the company's top and bottom line, Nestle chose to disregard the negative consequences of having capable mothers switch to formula, even when faced with the disproportionate impact it can have on mothers in developing countries. Nestle's actions have real consequences. According to UNICEF and the World Health Organization, approximately 1. 5 million infants die each year from bottle-feeding (Allhoff & Vaidya, 2008). Nestle's actions make them complicit in this. In addition, Nestle has repeatedly violated the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes, of which it promised to abide by. Clearly, doing what's best for mother's is not in the interest of Nestle, simply because it isn't in the best interest for their top and bottom line. As such, Nestle's actions can be clearly labeled as unethical and immoral.
Universal basic income
Am emerging topic that has gained traction in the last few years is the idea of a giving every citizen a monetary grant without a means test or work requirement, commonly known as Universal basic. Every citizen will receive a fixed amount on a predetermined time frame, whether that be monthly, weekly or annually. The idea of giving free money to citizens is as radical proposition as it is attractive. The basis behind UBI is that it is a more cost-efficient replacement for current welfare systems as a method of alleviating poverty (Tse, 2016). Arguments for UBI stress that is especially benefits the poor working class, who may struggle daily to cover basic living expenses, and in doing so, helps redistribute wealth.
The implications of Universal basic income are widespread, and to understand this concept from a utilitarian point of view it is important to analyze how such a policy maximizes happiness and promotes utility. A central tenant of basic income is its beneficial impact on the redistribution of wealth. While doing so may infringe on some individual rights such money, this infringement yields happiness for the majority (Tse, 2016). Poverty is not just a problem for those that experience it. It is a problem that affects everyone. According to the World Bank, close to half of the worlds population live on less than $5.50 a say (World Bank, 2011). This amount is not enough to sustain an adequate lifestyle. Even more staggering is that about 10% currently live on less than $1.90 a day, which the World bank constitutes extreme poverty (World Bank, 2018). Therefore, a program that attempts to tackle a problem that affects most of the population aligns with utilitarian ideals.
In addition, Universal basic income also maximizes happiness by offering those that are displaced from a job a sense of security. Unemployment is distressful and a cause of significant unhappiness. Whether unemployed due to physical ailments, or lack of skills, the impact isn't any different. Those that don't have the ability to sustain themselves will be fundamentally unhappier. Therefore, not only can basic income help provide a sense of security for these people, in doing so it maximizes utility in the process. It also helps those that are above the poverty line, but by only a few dollars and as a result still essentially live in poverty but are ineligible for government benefits. As a result, universal basic income is morally permissible.
Oracle versus PeopleSoft
Oracle is one of the largest technology and software companies in the world, with immense power and leverage in the industry. In an article titled, Oracle versus PeopleSoft Barbarians in the Valley offers a glimpse into the world of big-tech companies vying for complete control of the market.
In the early 2000's Oracle offered a bid to takeover Peoplesoft, one of its biggest competitors. This bid became instantly fraught with bad blood and divisive rhetoric. The media often described Oracle's actions as a hostile takeover. Peoplesoft consistently turned down Oracle's bid, arguing that Oracle intentions were to discontinue PeopleSoft's products, which would damage the company and that Oracles price per share offer was too low.
Oracle was, and still is, a dominant player in the business software market. At the time of the proposed takeover, the market was occupied by only a few major players, SAP, Oracle, PeopleSoft and JDEdwards, which merged with PeopleSoft shortly before Oracle expressed intent to take over PeopleSoft. With an oligopolistic market structure, having the 4 big players reduced to two immediately brought antitrust concerns. When a market that is already characterized by only a few players setting the price for goods and services, the consumer and the market have much less control over price. With two main players, the industry is only one step of way from becoming a full monopolistic market. A Monopoly tends to not be beneficial for consumers, as prices are not set by any price mechanism. Prices are simply declared by the controlling entity. And the price that is declared is non-negotiable and there is nothing consumers can say or do; they simply have to pay it. And no one can compete against the monopoly. If they try, they are either told they are not allowed to or eliminated (Yang, 2018). Consumers are at the mercy of the organization in power, with little to no recourse over unfair prices or practices. This sets a dangerous precedent and tears down the mechanisms necessary for a free market to operate. A free market is one where prices are more fairly determined. Without the fairness, those that are most disadvantaged will be disproportionately affected. The benefit of a market controlled by one or two dominant players is extended only to those that are fortunate to be in power.
For example, if Oracle and SAP are left as the last two, there is much less incentive for the two companies to diversify product offerings and offer the best deal for consumers. Competition is good for consumers as it forces companies to compete on price, which usually results in a reduction in price. Without this mechanism, prices can be artificially increased with little recourse. Customers will have no choice but to buy an SAP product or an Oracle product. In this instance, the maximization of the most people is nonexistent. It could be more aptly described as the minimization of happiness. In contrast to the ideals of utilitarianism, Oracle's takeover is most appropriately considered unethical and should be disallowed under antitrust rules.
Twitter has a women problem
Sex discrimination in the workplace comes in all forms, some overt and some must less obvious. One particular area of concern is the lack of women occupying executive roles in many of the large technology companies. This issue is further explored in an interesting piece by Laura Bacon titled Twitter has a Women Problem. This piece examines the lack of equality between men and women in the workplace.
The tech industry is heavily male dominated, and this comes as a surprise to nobody. Only about a quarter of Fortune 500 companies have even one woman on their executive teams, and women CEOs account for an even smaller percentage of these companies (Bacon, 2013). Things bring up an important point: Are technology companies like Twitter unethical in contributing to the lack of women in executive roles? The answer is not cut and dry. Instead, through the lens of a Utilitarian, and against the common thinking, such practices are in fact not unethical, even though it may be problematic. The goal of a business should be to hire the most qualified individuals to fill open positions, and not include gender as a qualifying factor. Focusing on hiring more women goes against this and creates a disadvantage, conflicting with the central theme of Utilitarianism of maximizing happiness and promoting utility for the greatest number of people. While more women should be encouraged to come forward and apply for these positions, hiring practices should be fair and inclusive of all genders, races and to not discriminate against any particular trait other than qualifications. Doing so creates a level playing field where both men and women have a equal chance. This doesn't disadvantage one particular group over another.
It is important to note that if the cause of the lack of women in power in technology companies is purposeful, this goes against utilitarian ideals and is unethical. It is important to draw this line. If a company does not employ fair hiring practices, they are acting unethically.
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Application of Utilitarianism to Various Case Studies
Utilitarianism is a simple ethical theory to both explain and assess. It requires the consideration of the overall happiness of an action. It is necessary to think about not only the positive outcomes, but also the negative outcomes; and, how an action affects other people, directly and indirectly. Utilitarianism can be represented as a simple mathematical equation. It is the total happiness of an action subtracted by the total unhappiness of that same action. Though assessing utilitarianism is done so by using this equation, it is difficult to quantify the amount of happiness. In a sense, we can say that utilitarianism is assessing the consequences of an action as well. We have to keep in mind of both short- and long-term consequences produced by our actions, but most importantly, we have to treat each person's happiness equally. We can't prioritize one's happiness over another when we are doing this assessment.
There are two different types of utilitarianism, Act and Rule. Act utilitarianism states if an action brings out the greater amount of net happiness than a different action, then that action is correct. If not, then it is wrong. However, if two separate actions produce an equivalent amount of net happiness, then both actions are considered a right action. Rule utilitarianism, on the other hand, doesn't assess the action of a person. Rule utilitarians believe that they can create "rules" to create the most net happiness of all people. They believe that these "rules" would determine what is right or wrong. Utilitarianism is considered to be consequentialist, universalistic, additive, and maximizing. It is considered consequentialist because as mentioned before, utilitarianism assesses the consequences of an action, both short- and long-term, as well as both directly and indirectly. It is considered universalistic because utilitarianism assesses not only the person doing the action but also how other people are affected by that action. It is considered additive because, as mentioned before, it assesses both happiness and unhappiness of others to determine whether or not the action is right or wrong. It is considered to be maximizing because the "goal of utilitarianism is to maximize human well-being." (Shaw, n.d.)
Throughout this paper, I will be assessing the case studies, "Hacking into Harvard," "Nestle and Advertising," "Challenger," "Working Conditions in Amazon," and "Mylan Hit with Racketeering Suit Over Big Price Hikes of EpiPen." I will provide the background and summary of each case, an ethical analysis of each party involved, and a conclusive argument whether or not each action is morally correct. Hacking into Harvard In the Case Study, "Hacking into Harvard", many people were rejected by the best business schools in the country. They were rejected because of their actions; however, is it their fault? According to the study, an anonymous person posted directions on how to check whether or not they were accepted into those schools. The top business schools that were a part of this case were Harvard, Dartmouth, Duke, Carnegie, Mellon, MIT, and Stanford. They all used the application website, ApplyYourself Inc., which had a flaw in its system.
According to the anonymous "hacker," (n.d.) the students were able to change the URL to find out the decision of the business school that they applied to. Knowing this, Harvard and MIT immediately rejected those who saw their decision. Stanford gave students who were involved, an opportunity to explain why they did what they did. Duke and Dartmouth accepted those who accessed the site. The students who wanted to know the status of their application were eager to know. It is possible to say that some of the students were curious to see if changing the URL will allow them to see their status. The students' parents or spouse could have done the hacking. The question is whether the student or the schools are at fault. As mentioned before, it is necessary to consider every person involved. We need to think about the happiness of the students who hacked the website, as well as the business schools. The students who were accused of hacking the website were unhappy with the outcome of their proclaimed action. The family members of those students, most likely, had a similar reaction towards the schools' decision. Those students and their family didn't know that changing a URL was considered hacking, or that doing so would reject their application. They both blamed the schools and ApplyYourself for not being aware of this in advance.
The business schools involved were a neutral party in this case. They weren't happy that they rejected the students; however, they weren't unhappy with it either. They were unhappy with the fact that those students were hacking into their website. The students who were considered the schools' "second choice" were happy with the outcome of this situation. Since the hacking students were rejected because of their action, other students were accepted to fill their spot. There are also many bystanders who we can consider. Some bystanders would be unhappy with the schools' decision because some might believe that changing the URL wasn't considered hacking. Some might be happy with the outcome because they believe that it is still wrong to access confidential files from the schools. Considering the overall happiness of the students, their family members, the business schools, the "second choice" students, and other bystanders, the decisions of the schools were morally correct. Those who are unhappy with the outcome are the hacking students and their family members, as well as some bystanders. Those who are happy are the "second choice" students and other bystanders.
It is difficult to quantify the number of people happy and the number of people who are unhappy, but it is safe to say that there were more people happy with the schools' decision than unhappy people; therefore, we can conclude that the decision of rejecting the hacking students is morally correct. Nestle and Advertising In the case study, "Nestle and Advertising," the Nestle Corporation, known for their food and drinks, were under fire for their advertisement of their baby formula in a third world country. According to the case study, the author, Chris Ragg (Ragg, n.d.) states people from the third world country, are not as fortunate as those living in the United States. The baby formula created by Nestle requires water. The water in a third world country is most likely contaminated with other materials or chemicals. The parents who bought the formula would have to use that contaminated water in order to feed their babies. The formula then becomes contaminated, causing their babies to be sick, which can result in death. The question is if Nestle was wrong for doing the action of advertising their product in a third world country. We need to consider the happiness of those involved in this case study.
It is important to consider the happiness of the Nestle Corporation, the families who lost their babies, and the bystanders who have an opinion on this case. The Nestle Corporation was most likely happy with their action. From a utilitarian view, Nestle focuses more on their positive outcome rather than their customers' outcome. They believed that they were helping those in a third world country rather than hurting. Although they didn't know what their action would cause, they were satisfied with the amount of profit that they made. Nestle The families who lost their babies were unhappy with the action of Nestle. The people in the third world countries didn't know that their baby would die because of the contaminated water needed for the formula. They might have thought that it is a cheap alternative to feed their children. Family members were furious of Nestles' action. It is safe to say that many bystanders who heard about Nestle's advertisement were unhappy with it as well. These bystanders were affected indirectly in this case.
Although they didn't lose a loved one, they were still enraged with what Nestle did. Considering the overall happiness of the Nestle Corporation, the families who lost their babies, and other bystanders, Nestles' action of advertising their baby formula in a third world country was ethically incorrect according to a utilitarian point of view. The parties that were unhappy with Nestles' action were the families who lost their young and many bystanders who had an opinion on this case. The only party who was happy the outcome was Nestle because of the profit that they made. It is safe to say that Nestles' action was ethically incorrect because the amount of people who were unhappy is greater than the number of people who were happy with the outcome. Challenger In the case study, "The Challenger," seven astronauts were murdered due to an explosion of the space shuttle named "The Challenger." Prior to the launch date, the engineers of Morton Thiokol discovered faulty O-rings on the shuttle. Once the engineers were aware of this, they reported it to their managers.
Although the managers were aware of the faulty O-rings, they proceeded with the launch and killed seven people. Morton Thiokol was pressured to proceed with the launch because there was a high amount of anticipation watching a teacher and a civilian go into space. The question is if Morton Thiokol's action is morally correct for proceeding with the launch. For this case, it is important to analyze the overall happiness of the family members of the passengers, NASA, Morton Thiokol, and bystanders who have an opinion about this case. The family members of the passengers were unhappy with Morton Thiokol's action. Of course, losing a loved one will result in an unhappy person, but knowing that the manager of Morton Thiokol knew that it was unsafe to launch, would make them furious. If they didn't know about the faulty O-rings, there would be a possibility that the family's feelings towards Morton Thiokol would change, but this isn't the case. NASA, the company who hosted the launch, was excited about this big event because two members weren't astronauts. Unfortunately, with the pressure amounted onto Morton Thiokol, the company decided to proceed with the flaw, which, in result, caused NASA and many others to be unhappy.
Although NASA would have been unhappy with Morton Thiokol delaying the launch, safety should be considered the top priority. It is safe to say that, at the time of the launch, NASA was happy with what Morton Thiokol did; however, NASA wasn't happy with the results. Morton Thiokol had the same feelings as NASA towards what they did. They were initially happy at the time of the launch because of how much pressure NASA was giving them; however, after the fact, Morton Thiokol would be upset with themselves. Many bystanders watching the launch were saddened with the outcome of Morton Thiokol's action. Those bystanders are affected indirectly by the action. Although they didn't lose a loved, they felt saddened witnessing the death of seven astronauts. Those bystanders, at the time of the launch, most likely thought that the explosion was an accident; however, once they found out that the rocket was launched knowing it was unsafe, many people became enraged. Those bystanders are affected indirectly by the action because Considering the overall happiness of all parties involved, it is safe to say that Morton Thiokol's action of proceeding with the launch, knowing that it was unsafe, was morally wrong from a utilitarian point of view. Morton Thiokol and NASA were initially happy at the time of the launch; however, they both were unhappy killing seven people.
The parties who were unhappy with this Morton Thiokol's action were the astronaut's families and many bystanders witnessing the launch. Since the number of unhappy people outweighs the number of happy people, Morton Thiokol's action was ethically incorrect. Amazon In the case study, "Working Conditions in Amazon," Amazon wants their workers to bring out the best in them. Amazon wants them to strive for greatness, but is it morally correct to do so while making their workers cry? Amazon makes their employees criticize coworker' ideas relentlessly; however, some former employees mentioned that doing so made them a better worker. Many workers described the working atmosphere as "purposeful Darwinism," (Kantor & Streitfeld, 2015) meaning that only the fittest survive. Unfortunately, Amazon didn't allow those who were recovering from injuries or had any "personal crisis," (Kantor & Streitfeld, 2015) to work with them. The question is if Amazon's actions of making their employees criticize other employees' ideas harshly are morally correct from a utilitarians point of view. For this case, it is important to analyze the overall happiness of all parties involved, such as Amazon, their employees, and the "quarter of a billion customers." (Kantor & Streitfeld, 2015)
As mentioned before, Amazon wants their employees to strive for the best; however, Amazon is merely thinking about themselves as a business. They want their business to succeed and be number one in the world. Amazon would be happy with their action of making their employees criticize each other's ideas. Having their employees doing so, they get the most inventive idea that would boost their profits. Amazon employees are both happy and unhappy with Amazon's action. At the time, when they are giving their ideas, every person harshly criticizes them. For some employees, they end up crying. In the long-term, the employees benefit from all their critics, making them think harder about their ideas, and to be more innovative. The "quarter of a billion customers" (Kantor & Streitfeld, 2015) benefit from Amazon's action. Every customer was satisfied because they still get what they ordered. The only time any customer will be unsatisfied is when they don't receive their order on time or at all. Either way, with or without Amazon's action, each and every customer would be satisfied if they received their order. There is a possibility that some customers will be unhappy with this action because they believe that any person with a "personal crisis" (Kantor & Streitfeld, 2015) should be allowed time to recover instead of getting replaced.
Considering the overall happiness of Amazon, the employees, and the customers, it is safe to say that Amazon's action of forcing their employees to relentlessly criticize other ideas is morally correct from a utilitarian point of view. The parties who were happy in this case were Amazon, most of the employees, and most of the customers. The parties who were unhappy in this case were some of the employees and some of the customers. Since the number of people who were happy is greater than the number of people unhappy, Amazon's action is morally correct. Mylan In the case study, "Mylan Hit with Racketeering Suit Over Big Price Hikes of EpiPen," Mylan wanted to make more profit by increasing the price of their EpiPens. EpiPens are a device specifically for those with "life-threatening allergies." (Mangan, 2017) Knowing that many people need the device, they still wanted to make more money off of them. Prior to the price increase, the EpiPen was only $90 dollars.
Now, a two-pack is $600 dollars. Some pharmaceutical stores could be at fault for this action as well. Some of those stores serve citizens who have health care insurance. It is a possibility that those stores participated in the action of increasing the prices for the EpiPen. The question is if Mylan's action of increasing the price of EpiPens was morally correct, speaking from a utilitarian point of view. For this case, it is important to analyze the overall happiness of every person involved. It is important to think about Mylan, some pharmaceutical stores, many customers, and other bystanders who have an opinion about this case when determining whether or not Mylan's action of increasing the prices on their product is morally correct. Mylan, most likely, would be happy with their action because of their increase in profit. Some pharmaceutical stores, including "CVS, Express Scripts, and Optum Rx," (Mangan, 2017) would also be in favor of Mylan's action. Both Mylan and some pharmaceutical stores are businesses, and their main priority is to increase profit. These customers who need EpiPens to save their lives are extremely unhappy with Mylan's action. There are many people with "life-threatening allergies," (Mangan, 2017) and most of those allergies relate to food consumption. It is understandable that people should know whatever they consume; however, there are cases in which they don't know. Before the price increase, the cost of an EpiPen was expensive, but it was reasonable.
Now, it is unaffordable. Bystanders, consisting of those without "life-threatening allergies," (Mangan, 2017) or those without allergies, might have an opinion about this case. These bystanders are affected indirectly in this case because they don't have to buy EpiPens, but they are still enraged about Mylan's action. Considering the overall happiness of Mylan, some pharmaceutical stores, many customers, and other bystanders, it is safe to say that Mylan's action of increasing the price of EpiPens dramatically is ethically wrong from a utilitarian point of view. The parties who were happy with Mylan's action were themselves and some pharmaceutical stores. The parties who were unhappy with Mylan's action were the millions of customers needing EpiPens to save their life, as well as some bystanders who have an opinion about this case. Since the number of people unhappy outnumbers the number of people happy, Mylan's action is morally incorrect. Conclusion Utilitarianism assesses the overall happiness of all individuals affected by an action, both directly and indirectly.
Observing the number of people who are happy with a certain action and the number of people who are unhappy with that action, we can determine whether or not that action is morally correct. From the case study, "Hacking into Harvard," it is safe to say that some business schools' decision to reject those students who access confidential information is morally correct. From the case study, "Nestle and Advertising," it is safe to say that Nestle's action to advertise their product in a third world country is morally incorrect. From the case study, "The Challenger," it is safe to say that Morton Thiokol's action to proceed with the launch, knowing that there was faulty equipment, was morally incorrect. From the case study, "Working Conditions in Amazon," it is safe to say that Amazon's action of forcing their employees to relentlessly criticize coworkers' ideas is ethically correct. From the case study, "Mylan Hit with Racketeering Suit Over Big Price Hikes of EpiPen," it is safe to say that Mylan's action of increasing the price of the EpiPen, knowing that it is necessary for people with allergies, is ethically incorrect.
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An Idea of the Utilitarian Perspective
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An Idea Of The Utilitarian Perspective. (2019, Aug 08).
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Utilitarianism: the Philosophy that Chooses to Please
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Sleep Deprivation Causes Productivity Loss
Our world is constantly innovating and moving forward. This is true in all fields of work and learning. There are many different ideas on how we might do this faster or better. One is that sleep deprivation causes productivity loss and can be dangerous. Not necessary Some people have argued that this does not have much of an effect beyond bags under your eyes and the occasional yawn. Although this has been proven bad for productivity, some employers require their employees to receive special training on low sleep work. Even with this training sleep deprivation could still cause catastrophic damage in the transportation field and medical field.
Some of the worst accidents in history have been caused by sleep deprivation. One of these accidents, was caused by two engineers who were without sleep for 18 hours and had only received a small amount this then led to the death of 30 people, the injury of 300 people, and relocation of thousands of people. But even if you aren't a nuclear engineer your sleep deprivation can cause you and others to be injured or killed. In the year 2013 alone sleep deprived driving caused 72,000 car crashes 44,000 people injured and cost 800 people their lives. With the amount of time you spend in car each day most likely saying this may be dangerous is an understatement. But some would like to argue with these statements saying that the negative. With one source saying some are not affected by sleep deprivation as others (Matthews, Melissa). This could mean that you should just put in more hours and not bother with the sleeping thing that much. But a more reasonable solution would be to sleep and see how long it takes your body to naturally wake up, and then you should then base your bed time of that and the time you need to wake up. This is not saying that the once a month late night essay will kill you. This is just a warning and a reminder to make sure you are getting enough sleep every night.
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Sleep Deprivation has been Around Since the Dawn of Time
In 16th century Scotland, it was used to test and torture accused witches. It was a popular form of confession-eliciting torture called waking the witch. After staying awake for days, their hallucinations caused them to spin false tales of flying and shapeshifting into animals. Marie de Manaceine, a Russian scientist, experimented with sleep deprivation on puppies in 1894. The puppies were deprived between four and five days of sleep. Unexpectedly, after the experiment, all the puppies died. Sleep deprivation was a legal and standard practice of US military torture until 2009. A common method is to use a heretic's fork, such as the one pictured above. These are not the only things that can cause sleep deprivation, however. (Mann).
Many sleep disorders can cause sleep deprivation. In fact, sleep deprivation and sleep disorders are both very general terms. Sleep disorders can refer to any condition that affects one's quality and/or quantity of sleep; sleep deprivation refers to a state where one doesn't get enough sleep or don't get enough quality sleep. There are many symptoms of sleep disorders that are easily spotted, whether it is in oneself or others. Some of these symptoms include irritability during the day, difficulty staying awake, feeling tired while driving, difficulty concentrating, slow reactions, difficulty controlling emotions, and more. The more symptoms one has, the more likely they are to have a sleep disorder. Some common sleep disorders that may lead to sleep deprivation include insomnia, sleep apnea, and restless leg syndrome. (Smith, et al.).
The National Sleep Foundation has a recommendation for sleep durations depending on one's age. A chart is shown above with the following information. Newborns are recommended to sleep for 14-17 hours daily. Infants should sleep for 12-15 hours daily. Toddlers should sleep for 11-14 hours daily. Preschoolers should sleep for 10-13 hours daily. School-age children should sleep for 9-11 hours daily. Teenagers should sleep for 8-10 hours daily. Adults should sleep for 7-9 hours daily, and adults over 65 years old should sleep between seven and eight hours a day. (Nat'l Sleep Foundation). Many sleep disorders can end up leading to sleep deprivation or already have it as a side effect. As mentioned above, these disorders include insomnia, sleep apnea, and restless leg syndrome. Other causes of sleep deprivation can include personal choice, medications, family obligations, and illness. Someone may avoid sleeping to socialize with their friends, finish a school assignment, or stay late for work. One might also be staying up because of their young children. Everyone has their reasons to stay up late occasionally, but doing it often can be detrimental to one's health. (Dept. of Health & Human Services).
There are many side effects of not getting an adequate amount of sleep. There can also be different symptoms depending on age; however, I will be focusing on adults and teenagers. Some of the less serious effects in adults include yawning, grogginess, and reduced work efficiency. More serious effects can include slower reaction time, poorer judgment, reduced awareness, and microsleep. This can be very dangerous because it may lead to drowsy driving, which, in some cases, is at least as dangerous as driving drunk. In fact, going 24 hours without sleep is similar to having a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) reading of 0.1%. This is greater than the legal limit of 0.8% BAC. (Dept. of Health & Human Services).
Scientists have previously assessed three different categories to measure the effects of sleep deprivation on a person's performance. These categories include cognitive performance, motor skill performance, and mood. The test subjects had to perform exams of logical reasoning, mental addition, visual search tests, and word memory tasks to measure their cognitive performance. These exams may have included word searches, math problems, or being given verbal instructions that had to later be recited. Motor skill tests may have included reaction times, simple treadmill walking, and manual dexterity tests. Reaction times may have been tested by tossing a football at one of the test subjects. Dexterity tests may have been executed by using a specific hand to place pegs in a board (such as the one below) while listening to specific instructions. For testing the subjects' moods, the scientists could simply ask the subjects. (Pilcher and Huffcut).
Treatments are only required when a person can physically not get to sleep. The reason for this may be physical or psychological. Treatments can include medications, cognitive and behavioral treatment, or something as simple as changing one's nighttime routine. Medications can include benzodiazepines, non-benzodiazepine hypnotics, and melatonin; this, however, is not always recommended due to the fact that some people can form dependencies on these medications. Benzodiazepines are anxiety-reducing sedatives. Cognitive and behavioral treatments may include relaxation techniques or stimulation control. Stimulation control can include changing one's nighttime routine. (Davis). It is recommended to have one's bedroom at around 65?° Fahrenheit for optimal sleeping conditions. It is also recommended to not have electronics on close to the time one goes to sleep or even in the bedroom. If one does have electronics in the bedroom, they should place them away from the bed, as the blue light from screens can suppress melatonin production in the body. A lack of sleep can be extremely detrimental to one's health. Humans spend about one-third of their life asleep, and one in five adults fails to get an adequate amount of rest. As Jaeda DeWalt once said, Sleep deprivation is physically miserable and creatively cathartic, as internal landscapes rise up from their dormant ashes. Sleep is just as important to our health as drinking water or eating, and people don't treat it as such.
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Sleep Deprivation Has Been Around Since the Dawn of Time. (2019, Aug 08).
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