Month: February 2019
Taming Democracy
The American Revolution, how did it effect America? How did it evolve if it did? Before we answer any of those questions we must first answer the question of what the American revolution really was. The American revolution was something that some believed was inevitable due to the fact that the British government tried to rule over the American colonies from a distance and not really trying to hear what the colonist had to say about the way they wanted to be ruled. This angered the colonist causing them to revolt against laws, and taxation. The final turning point that officially started the war between the colonies and Britain was the Boston Massacre. The Boston massacre was caused by a young boy being pushed to the ground of by a British soldier. A group of colonist began to revolt by joining to create a mob of people armed with sticks, bricks, and anything else they could get their hands on. Five colonists were eventually shot by a group of redcoats causing the American Revolution to fully form into an all-out war. x The vison of ’76. Bouton describes the vison as the colonist “attempting to instill the new idea of governance in which the government worked to make ordinary white men independent property owner and diminish power of the affluent.” (Bouton pg. 32) These economically and politically driven goals formed what the Pennsylvanians thought the revolution was about to them. This cause a ripple effect of ordinary Pennsylvanians calling for more powerful economic and political system stronger than ever before.
As more people called for this and adopted the ideology of the vision of ’76 it helped Pennsylvania’s Revolution become perhaps one of the most democratic revolutions in the new world. They believed that concentration of wealth and power lead to corruption and tyrannical rulers. This can be shown by the roman empire who became filled with greed of power and new land and eventually leading to corruption plus the downfall of their empire. Winning the war. Winning the war brought about a new coming for the colonist. It gave them the ability to create their own governments with their own laws and system of ways. Given the opportunity some states decided to use the British way of living as the base for their government and take out or add whatever they wanted. They changed things like taxation, finance, and trading laws. It also brought new voting rights in some ways. To vote you still had to own land but they reduced the amount of land needed to actually vote. They also gave the “common man” new powers and privileges. With those good changes came a spur devastating times for the colonist. The 1780’s is known as the “The Crisis of the 1780’s”. During this time period there was a lack of money causing panic among the colonist. But farmers had it the worst to me with the lack of property like cows, horses, or land. Some farmers had to live on cottages sometimes they would switch if another landlord offered better but would stay in the same position money wise overall. Their new government didn’t come easily there was a lot of petitions and arguing to figure out whose definition of democracy and whose vision of the revolution would be chosen for the new United States.
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Taming Democracy. (2019, Feb 15).
Retrieved November 4, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/8/
Media in Democracy
We probably all agree that we are going through an unprecedented period in the history of our country. There is a lot of talk about the democratization of the United States, about the role of information in the formation of public opinion, of the electoral campaigns, about the campaign strategies in the presidential elections, and even the role played is praised by the media in relation to having propitiated our definitive entrance to democracy. Do not forget that, although this is a period in which we are enjoying an opening that has never before seen in the media, it is also true that a misunderstanding about what the media writes can lead to erroneous conclusions regarding the role of communication and the media in the politics.
In “The Challenge of Democracy” it defines Media as “The means employed in mass communication; traditionally divided into print media and broadcast media.” (Janda, Berry, Goldman, Schildkraut, & Manna, 2015). This modern perspective of the role of communication and the media within the framework of the policy arises naturally from post-war pragmatism, whose objective is to provide solutions to the demands that affect any social system. The means of communication thus becomes a fast and efficient instrument to get the information and give course to social demands along with their possible solutions. Within this pragmatic conception, the role of politics and the media in the taking processes of decisions is, therefore, the product of a crisis of legitimacy of the democratic systems authentically represented by the rational choice theory.
In other words, today we can say that the principles of pragmatism, the concept of competence for analysis of political phenomena and the notion of leadership from negotiation, exchange and motivation criteria were the responses that at a certain moment we have managed to exchange the notion of the vote for that of consumption. Vote then it becomes something similar to exchanging goods. That is why we have developed, gradually, a notion that allows us to accept, without the greatest embarrassment, that analogies between the politician as a commodity and the action of the vote with the consumption are valid, and that they come from totally logical feasible. What is worse, is that political pragmatism and the rational choice theory are responsible not only of the relationship of dependence, negotiation, persuasion and manipulation of the media to their readers and their audiences, but also the notion that the politician is similar to an entrepreneur who following the logic of negotiation resorts to position trading, to management of resources not only material and political but also of the symbolic resources for the formation of winning coalitions. The electoral triumph is therefore synonymous with the sale and management of a public policy that becomes the same as a business negotiation
From this perspective, the Government and politics are tragically similar to the laws of the market, the best politician is which is sold as the best product, the best communication is the one that achieves the best image within the target audience to which it pretends to arrive and the best policy is not the one that favors and ensures the future of the majorities, but the one that convinces them most in the short term.
I do not agree with the idea that the end justifies the means. The democratic transition has been well worth it, but the mechanisms might have been not the best option to get to it. We have to question the authority, the role that we have attributed to the media of communication and the responsibility that we are placing on his shoulders. Ultimately, the choice was ours; it is not going to be that we arrive at wrong conclusions or we are simply dazzled by the phenomenon of informative opening without assuming our own responsibility in the process.
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Media in Democracy. (2019, Feb 15).
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Development of Democracy as Political Theory
The political theory we study today is founded upon the history of the ancient Greeks, dating all the way back to the era of Western political philosophy. Political theory is the nature and purpose of human society; it analyzes and explains how our society came about, how it works, and why it exists. We study political theory because it helps citizens to understand their relationship to their ruling government as well as identifies their role in society. Additionally, political theory examines moral claims and the way they are applied to politics. Moral claims – assumptions about a person’s internalized character and ethics, allows us to decipher between right and wrong and aids us in making proper judgements. This is especially important in politics so that our government can be built upon a strong, controlled, and just system. In ancient Greece, the laws of society were composed of customs and traditions, or nomos, and remained firm and consistent throughout time. George Klosko, author of History of Political Theory: An Introduction Volume I: Ancient and Medieval, states that, “As citizens of our countries, we have responsibilities to the citizens around us, our government, and our family and friends.” (Klosko) In addition to these duties, we are also guaranteed rights – more specifically, the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness as outlined in the United States Constitution. These responsibilities and rights of citizens, as well as the education and traditions of ancient governments will be discussed in more detail in the subsequent paragraphs as we compare and contrast the Athenian Model of the Polis and Plato’s “Just City”.
The Greeks of ancient times were all bound together by common language, their way of life, and religion. (Klosko) Just as in various countries around the world today, ancient Greece was composed of different forms of government – just not as many as those that exist today. The foundation of our nation’s government were built upon the political ideas established in ancient Greece. In an autocratic government, as seen in many middle eastern countries, an absolute ruler such as a monarch, chosen by their extraordinary, innate abilities, manages society. Two forms of government – authoritarian and totalitarian stem from this autocratic government. An authoritarian government is one in which a leader or a small group of leaders rules without being constitutionally responsible for the people or the laws. A totalitarian government, on the other hand, is one that confiscates all individual freedoms and designates the characteristics citizens’ lives to the authority of the nation. In an aristocratic/oligarchical government (preferred by Plato), the power of the nation is designated to a relatively small, wealthy class of rulers. In a democracy, the official form of government in the United States, the nation is ruled by many people. There are two forms of democracy – a direct democracy and a representative democracy. In a representative democracy, the type of democracy we have today, the rulers are elected representatives chosen to maintain a system of checks and balances. In a direct democracy, as seen in ancient Athens, the nation is ruled by anyone who wishes and decisions are made by the citizens.
In ancient Greece, specifically Athens and Sparta, the structure of their nation was referred to as a polis, which has many translations including “politics”, “politician”, and “police”. However, the most commonly used English derivative of the term polis, is “city-state”. In Athens, the polis is a purposely small, self-ruled institutional form of government that offers powerful common life for its citizens. The small size of Athen’s polis allows for citizens’ active involvement in public governmental affairs; this is known as a direct, participatory democracy – one in which citizens were actively involved in the nation’s government. Aristotle preferred the polis to be restricted in size as to provide an effective and well-organized community for its citizens. Within ancient Greece, each polis maintained their own laws and form of government within its own range of citizens. Specifically, in the Athenian model of the polis, there were two dimensions of the city-state: a popular assembly, and a social and educational institution.
Within Athen’s popular assembly, rulers of the city-state were citizens randomly chosen by form of a “lottery”. These randomly chosen leaders, would meet within this popular assembly to debate upon and discuss governmental affairs and national decisions. Because the rulers were not voted upon, elections played very little, if any, role in Athenian democracy. Athen’s popular assembly within the democracy is comprised of courts of law with very large juries. Just as the United States citizens’ rights and responsibilities are founded upon historical documents, the government of ancient Athens also relies on a written Constitution. Unlike our current democracy, there was no separation between church and state within Athenian society. Rather than having multiple religions that citizens are free to follow, ancient Athens had one state religion.
The goal of education in the Athenian polis was “to improve the lives of its population and to teach proper moral ideals and virtues.” (Klosko) Inside the social and educational institution of the polis, the virtues of the city-state were expressed through its laws. Because the polis of Athens was a powerful socializing force, the education creates a general idea of what the good life should be and what happiness is. The educational system of the polis was composed of 2 components: Education in the visual and literary arts, and physical training to prepare citizens for war. Greek law in Athens was primarily based upon the true moral principles that human beings are able to discover through experience and education. Because Greek laws were strongly and directly correlated with religion, the god(s) of the city-state were the ones who established the laws. Both the laws and the educational system of the polis consisted of the application of the existence of valid moral claims to the city-state.
In the Athenian city-state, citizenship was the center of communal life in the polis. Citizens exercised their active role in the participatory democracy by holding office such as that in a modern bureaucracy, serving on juries or being judges, serving direct rule which held a very specific meaning, and emphasizing a strong correlation between private and public life. In Athenian society, women had very few legal rights and lived in practical isolation from the political society. Women lived underneath the authority of men with their major function being to “produce legitimate offspring to inherit property.” (Klosko) The role of women was to give birth to and groom young children to become powerful leaders in the Athenian participatory democracy. However, women, slaves, and foreigners, were all denied full citizenship within the city-state.
In terms of Athenian citizens’ relationship to their city-state, Aristotle referred to human beings as “political animals” – meaning that they can only reach their full potential by living life within the poleis. Although in our modern democratic government today we will not be randomly selected to participate directly in our country’s government like the Athenian’s were, we may still be selected to participate indirectly in our government such as serving jury duty or voting in election polls to uphold our nation’s representatives. Within the polis, only male adults were considered citizens and were required to directly serve in the democratic government. The most important decisions concerning the nation’s affairs (decisions affecting the lives of all inhabitants) were made directly by citizens collectively after a debate within the popular assembly. Within the city-state, democratic citizenship in the participatory direct government was the center of life. All political institutions were composed of male citizens of proper age and citizens selected randomly through a lottery system. Political service in the democracy was a normal part, even a duty, of citizens’ lives.
Contrary to the Athenian model of the polis is Plato’s idea of a “Just City”. Plato believed virtue was a necessary characteristic in order to obtain happiness. Plato asserts that without a just environment, one composed of the various definitions of justice, no one can become virtuous. The main function of Plato’s “just city” is to maintain a “state-controlled system of education which was designed to raise everyone to their greatest level of virtue.” (Klosko)
The primary structure of Plato’s “just city” is a completely controlled environment. While the Athenian polis was a direct, participatory democracy, Plato’s “just city” was an oligarchy, preferred by Plato himself. Unlike Aristotle, Plato believed his “just city” should be composed of a large number of families and guarded by a large army. The main feature of Plato’s “just city” is its solid division of classes. Similar to our government’s 3 branches (the executive, legislative, and judicial), Plato’s “just city” is composed of Philosopher-kings, Auxiliaries, and producers. The only difference between our government’s branches and Plato’s branches is that the “just city” possesses a hierarchy. The philosopher-kings, or guardians, are the highest class that rule the city-state. The Auxiliaries are the second-class warriors that make up the city’s militia or army. The economic life in the “just city” is maintained by the producers, or the third-class merchants. Within the city, the guardians and the auxiliaries receive the same education. The primary reason for the separation of these classes is to ensure that the city’s best citizens will rule the nation. As Socrates portrays it, “Unless cities have philosophers as kings…unless political power and philosophy coincide…there can be no end to political troubles…or even to human troubles in general.” (Klosko) The two main reasons why it is ideal for philosophers to rule the city are because of their knowledge of both moral and metaphysical truth, as well as their superior characters. Unlike modern day politicians, philosophers do not care about wealth; rather, the dedicate all of their motivation towards internal pleasures of the mind. People in our modern-day society similar to Plato’s “philosophers” include artists, priests and followers of various religions, Catholic monks, and scientists. All of these previously mentioned occupations work towards improving the mind and soul, rather than seeking immediate gratifications and tangible pleasures. Contrary to our government’s separation of powers, Plato believes his “just city” can rule without a system of checks and balances because his philosopher-king rulers have no reason to abuse their power.
The paramount purpose of political institutions in Plato’s “just city” is the instillation of virtue on its citizens through education. Plato believes the city should shape the souls of its citizens after its own image and that only good men are to be modeled/imitated as example-setters. In Plato’s ideal city-state, education continues even after early education. Within his city, there is a designated program of higher education for philosophic-rulers to prepare them for their kingship and decipher between strong and weak rulers. The educational environment of the city works towards a goal of providing moral reform for its citizens. Unlike Aristotle’s idea of education, Plato emphasized education of the arts and steered away from physical training as in the polis. Plato shared the view with Socrates that moral beliefs should not rely on faith alone. Plato was against seeking poets for moral guidance, unless that poet was able to teach independent arguments for their views, similar to the goals of Socrates’ Socratic method. Plato emphasized that art has significant moral and social influences and that people are especially influenced by the art they are exposed to during early childhood. However, if poetry and other arts do not meet his standards, Plato believes they could inflict harmful effects and thus should be prohibited from the “just city”. Plato believed that education begins before birth while the mother does rhythmic exercises in the womb. Additionally, he believed that art and other aspects of education are especially effective during early childhood “when the soul is most malleable.” (Klosko) This is similar to our modern views of early education with the exception that, instead of the soul being malleable, the mind is most malleable during childhood. Plato compares the child’s soul to a sponge because it soaks up the educational environment it is raised in. In Plato’s curriculum schedule, philosophers begin their program of higher studies in mathematic dialectic, which lasts 15 years covering arithmetic, geometry, and harmonics (physics). After an additional 15 years of obtaining practical experience in the “just city”, education is finally complete at the age of 50. Similar to our nation’s modern-day views of media, Plato asserts that children’s attitudes towards violence may be negatively impacted by their exposure to violent TV shows and media sources. In order for education to achieve its goal of instilling virtue, Plato states that total control is demanded and advocates for “a system of conditioning that involves al aspects of the state.” (Klosko) Plato makes an analogy of a sick man and medication: A sick man who continues to take medications rather than altering his lifestyle that made him sick in the first place is similar to changing laws in a city that is corrupt at the center. A city’s corruption can be eliminated and replaced with a proper educational system only if the entire environment is reconstructed.
Plato mentions three basic types of humans: philosophical, competitive, and appetitive. The philosophical humans are those that focus on reasoning elements and primarily care about wisdom and truth. The competitive humans are those that focus on the spiritual element and emphasize the virtue of honor. The last class of humans, the appetitive type, are those that focus on money and immediate pleasures/gratifications. In Plato’s “just city”, female guardians performed the same job as the male guardians and all guardians possess women and children in common. Men were not to know who their children were and were not allowed to display excessive love for one woman in particular. Additionally, women were also not allowed to know who their children were as they were taken from them at birth. In Plato’s idealistic city, war was supported by universal rule of law and children joined the adults in battle. If any citizen displayed weakness, their status as a guardian or a philosopher-king was revoked.
In order to ensure that the city’s rulers actually possessed the outstanding characteristics intended for philosophers, they were carefully selected during youth and then tested at various stages throughout their lives. The quality of Plato’s “just city” was determined by the strength of its philosopher-kings’ desires to rules. The philosopher-kings of the city rule involuntarily as a duty because the benefits of philosophy were not guaranteed through political power.
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Development of Democracy as Political Theory. (2019, Feb 15).
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Voice of Democracy
You may think that your vote doesn’t matter; that speaking up for what you believe in would be like throwing a pebble in an ocean. It may make a small splash, but it wouldn't affect the direction of the waves. But one voice joined together with others can create a tremendous change. One vote can be the deciding factor in a race. In Virginia, Republican David Yancey won reelection in his state house district by having his name drawn out of a bowl. After a recount and a court decision, he and his opponent Democrat Shelly Simonds were tied. Their names were written down and placed in identical containers to be drawn out of a bowl, with Yancey emerging the winner. This could have all been avoided if simply one more person had voted. One vote was the difference between the the Virginia House of Delegates being equally divided between Democrats and Republicans, or having a Republican majority.
Voting turnout directly correlates with age as the highest is 60+ followed by 45-59, then 30-44, and finally 18-29. Of those who do vote, it is shown that millennials tend to vote overwhelmingly Democratic compared to older generations, who are more equally split. Millennials make up thirty percent of the voting population but only approximately half actually turned out to the 2016 election. With all of the demand for change on so many issues like sexual assault, gun violence, and equal rights issues, those who support such causes need to use their vote to try to make those changes. Research has shown that if more people voted than the laws would be what was best for the majority and not for the specific demographics that are the current voters. It has also been said that the campaigns would change to appeal to the majority which could bring about great change in our laws and society at large. It may be difficult, if not impossible, to find a candidate who aligns with one’sviews perfectly, but there is always a choice that is at least slightly better than the others.
There are so many ways to enact change. You could protest or become a spokesperson and spread your messages and ideas to others that may not have heard it or understood it. You could do this in many ways. There are people who speak out just for the issues they believe in and have gained fame and notoriety around those issues like Emma Gonzalez, a survivor of the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, who started speaking out against gun violence after the tragedy and is now well known and has had interviews with Ellen DeGeneres and Jimmy Kimmel as well as many other popular news sites. Others like actors and singers speak out about issues they believe in because they already have a following. However this can have negative effects as they could get backlash and lose fans. This has caused many famous people to stay silent on their opinions on many of these topics.
There is a lot of talk currently about the midterm elections. There was quite a bit of public outrage over Brett Kavanaugh being confirmed as a Supreme Court Justice. He has been accused of sexual assault, which brought up many debates on false accusations, believing the victim and other such normally taboo subjects. His confirmation sparked a movement called ‘Blue Wave’. Celebrities and online influencers who have before remained neutral and not spoken up about politics are now speaking up urging people to vote Democrat in the coming election. We don’t yet know how much of an effect this so-called “Blue Wave” will have on the election. It’s a complicated issue and it is hard to predict the outcome. Regardless of whether you vote Democrat or Republican, you still need to vote. If you want change or if you want things to stay completely the same, what you think has no effect on the outcome unless you cast your ballot and make that little bit of difference that can end up being a lot. Because the truth is, every vote matters. If everyone decided to stay home thinking, ‘What is one vote going to change?’, then nothing would ever change.
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Voice of Democracy. (2019, Feb 15).
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The Political Foundations of Democracy and the Rule of Law
“The Political Foundations of Democracy and the Rule of Law” by Barry R. Weingast uses game-theoretic models to investigate two basic puzzles. The first puzzle analyzes the connection between democratic stability and interests; interests meaning citizen versus elite values. The second puzzle looks into democratic stability in divided societies. With his model, Weingast is able to explain these circumstances.
Weingast’s game theoretic models works under some assumptions, the first being that all citizens have opinions when it comes to limits on government. Another assumption is that every individual citizen is able to classify state decisions into two groups: legitimate actions and transgressions. Individualism is important with this model since every person has different values. Next, the players are divided into two groups: the single political official known as the sovereign and the groups of citizens known as the citizenry. In order for the sovereign to stay in power, there must be enough support by the citizenry. Knowing this, the sovereign’s behavior will be affected as his own self-interests will make him respect the limits because he knows he’ll be worse off if he doesn’t. This is known as a self-enforcing limit. On the contrary, when the limits are not defended by the citizenry, the sovereign can violate them and continue to govern. Therefore, in order to prevent the breach of rights, citizens have to step up and unite.
The first model illustrates a coordination problem. The situation involves the distribution of surplus. First, the sovereign chooses whether or not to transgress the rights of his citizens. Once this choice is made, two groups of citizens, A and B, make a decision at the same time to accept or challenge the sovereign. In order to stay in power, the sovereign just needs one group’s approval. Therefore, if the groups unite, they can prevent transgressions. If they are divided, the sovereign can transgress the citizens’ rights and not have to fear removal. There are a couple equilibria that could result in this game. The sovereign could transgress and since it would be costly if a group challenges, especially alone, the group would end up acquiescing. The second equilibria would be that the sovereign decides not to transgress. As a result, the payoff would be maximized. Weingast states that this second situation exists because there is a possibility that both groups would challenge and remove the sovereign. Therefore, in this equilibria, limits on the sovereign are self-enforcing which is why he’d choose to not transgress.
In the second model, a couple of elements are added to the problem and Group A and B become more distinguished from one another. First, the sovereign could reduce one group’s rights and not the other’s. This would mean that a transgression against one group would benefit another group and the sovereign. The group with its rights reduced would be at a disadvantage if it tried to challenge, so an acquiesce would be most likely. If one group gets transgressed upon and it does not challenge the sovereign, the other group probably wouldn’t challenge if they were placed in the same situation later on. This leads to three different equilibria. If the sovereign transgresses against both groups, they will both acquiesce. If the sovereign transgresses against Group B, both groups will acquiesce. Lastly, if the sovereign transgresses against Group A, both groups will also acquiesce. Basically, this model shows that a transgression against one group will succeed when the other group does not also feel violated. The only time transgressions against both groups will succeed according to Weingast is when both groups are obedient and believe that the sovereign should be able to do whatever he pleases.
The main point of this article was to show that in order to have a true democracy, society would need to find ways to make sure that the sovereign will not transgress. As Weingast points out, the Glorious Revolution is a wonderful illustration of his model. The Tories are mistreated first (Group A) and then the Whigs (Group B). This makes them finally unite and work together to overthrow King James II (the sovereign).
Weingast gets into divided societies next and why they are so much less stable. He relates it to his model and states that “people’s natural diversity impedes coordination” (Weingast, 1997). In regards to the elite and the ordinary citizens, they can be used as Group A and B in Weingast’s model. Violating one group’s rights may uplift the other’s. In order to regulate the sovereign, both groups have to be coordinated enough to keep the sovereign in check. They would have to have a means of coordination such as a constitution or a riot. There must also be a way of punishing the sovereign if he transgresses. This leads to a rule of law where limits are put in place which citizens must then enforce. Coordination is key.
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The Political Foundations of Democracy and the Rule of Law. (2019, Feb 15).
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Jacksonian Democracy
Democracy in many eras is defined when someone is running for office and naturally against other political candidates. The citizens (usually wealthy men) have the decision to vote, for that specific candidate is put in position to make decision for the people in that society, whoever has the majority vote wins. Yes, I agree with the Jacksonian’s view of democracy to extent to that they themselves stand for individual liberty, and economic opportunity and the constitution. During the 1800’s democracy was ambiguously defined because of people’s different definitions; the founding’s of the America political system was defined by these ideologies and beliefs it had set the course for the legalities and administrations for different political parties. The Jacksonian had an interesting definition of democracy, Jacksonian democracy is a 19th-century political philosophy originating with the seventh President Andrew Jackson and his supporters, and it was one of America’s dominant political worldview of democracy.
Andrew Jackson and his follower’s political ideology of what he considered democracy was constitutional, George Henry Evans, “The working Men’s Declaration of Independence” (December 1829). Showed that the Jacksonian’s views of constitution were aligned, and they had shared the ideologies of “…that all men are created equal; that they endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” the Jacksonian’s point of view is constitutional and to this idea was correct. Jackson received most of his support from the common man, who saw their independence as the most important necessity to preserve.
Andrew Jackson had believed that economic opportunity was important to have individual liberty, Jackson’ veto message, July 10, 1832) had believed that if we have a national bank it not work in our best favor, but “… the rich and powerful too often bend the acts of govt. to in (Andrew their selfish purposes” the Jacksonian ideas were honest despite the criticism that they were only for white men, they truly show that his ideas for democracy were transcending and honest. Their perspective is like of the anti-federalist, because they were pro-constitution and not very keen on having a big government and somewhat believes in the idea of “God helps, to those who help themselves”.
The disagreement in ideologies that Jacksonian and the people who view them is put in question on the topic of slavery, (in document F) Acts and Resolutions of South Carolina (1835) “… earnestly requests that the govts of these states will promptly and effectually suppress all those associations within their respective limits purporting to be abolition societies” this was the disagreement that a lot of the Jacksonian had disagreed o among themselves even Jackson had his fair share of the controversy because of this the pro-slavery bias was the darker side to Jacksonian Democracy
The Jackson were open to slavery it he believed that should be treated human dignity ," he showed no action to abolish or remove the legalization of the arranged slave system. But the whole topic is complicated, so we be understanding to the extent of contextualizing and seeing for how it was, no bias.
Yes, I agree with them but to an extent that our commonalities are dominated than our differences in ideologies and philosophy. Andrew Jackson and Jackson's followers who created the party were also "for the people." Such ideals were shown throughout various times within the period. The democrats were essentially guardians of the United States Constitution and, similarly, were protectors of individual liberties. And equality of opportunity. Through the early 1800’s the Jacksonian’s themselves have created an era where we can have a moment to question what is democracy and what extent do have to give up having political ideology and how much do we kowtow to extreme side of it, for a better democracy, society? But also, they have shown that in moment where the majority usually rules, the difference in ideas out spoke and transcended.
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Democracy in India
The Republic of India was created in 1950 and held its first elections in 1951. Universal suffrage (for adults) was adopted from the beginning, with contestation between 14 political parties. India is a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature, the Rajya Sabha (upper house) consists of members appointed by the president and state legislatures. The Lok Sabha is the lower house, elected by the people. Until the end of the 1977, a single party, Congress, dominated parliament. Starting from 1967, the Congress party headed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi attempted to make amendments to the Constitution in order to nullify Supreme Court judgements. The end of a war with Pakistan as well as the 1973 oil crisis caused economic problems in India, leading to a rise in political opposition to the Congress party. In 1975, President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed declared a state of emergency, upon PM Gandhi’s advice. All civil liberties were suspended as Gandhi descended with a series of political crackdowns arresting protestors, banning political parties, and arresting political opponents within and outside of her party. This state of emergency was approved every six months (as required by the Constitution) until 1977, when elections were held again and Congress faced its first electoral defeat. Since then, the strength of this hegemonic party has weakened, with other national and regional based parties gaining significant favor in years since. In this paper, we will look at India’s democratic system since 1977, and compare it conceptualizations of democracy by Dahl and Prezowski as well as the Polity IV rating of Indian democracy. I will also talk about how well democracy in India has worked for its citizens by looking at persisting problems in the system.
In the 2014 elections, there were 35 parties that won at least one seat in the Indian Parliament. Around 730 political parties are recognized by the election commission. These small parties often represent the interests of members of a particular region, religion, or caste. Public contestation is surely present in India, along with universal suffrage, India would fall into Dahl’s description of a Polyarchy, characterized by high levels of liberalization and inclusiveness. Of his Eight Institutional Guarantees, the first four: freedom to form and join organizations, freedom of expression, right to vote, and eligibility for public office are present in Indian democracy. The Polity IV Country Report for India (2010) scores political participation at a 9, however writes about the complexity of this participation and the many problems it has caused. The Congress Party was able to represent various interests of Indian society and brought it into a centralized institutional framework. The report writes “While the institutions of Indian democracy remain strong… in recent years they have been increasingly challenged by the centrifugal nature of Indian society and the institutional decay of the post-Congress party system.” (Polity IV) The strength of national parties has given way to the rise of smaller regional parties that put national interest second to their own. In addition the parties have been characterized with rampant corruption, “vehicles for individual ambition” (Polity IV), and factionalism. The presence of many parties creates the need for a coalition system, and India is moving toward a two-coalition system. However, the political leaders frequently go from one party to another, and parties themselves regularly change coalitions. This leads to the conclusion that while inclusiveness and liberalization are present at high levels in India, the system itself is so damaged by tensions in the fractious coalitions as well as the lack of benevolent leaders in these democratically elected parties that democratic stability is not present in India. Both general and political illiteracy and a middle class of apathetic voters leads to the persistence of these problematic leaders and parties despite their clear track record of doing harm.
Dahl’s 6th Institutional Guarantee, the presence of alternative sources of information is necessary for citizens to be able to signify their presence. Unfortunately, India has consistently scored poorly in press freedom. Freedom House categorizes press freedom status as only “partly free.” In 2005, the Right to Information Act was passed, giving any citizen the right to request information from any public authority which must respond within 30 days. However, due to the broad restrictions in this act, the majority of the requests have been blocked. Additionally, the 6 national political parties have simply refused to provide information despite the law applying to them as well, according to a 2013 ruling by the Central Information Commission. Journalists who have called out Hindu nationalist groups for crimes as heinous as sex trafficking, and others who wrote about how the government ministry has discriminated against Muslims have had charges filed against them. While the majority of these do not end in convictions, the use of authority to silence journalists is very powerful and can cause others to withhold information in the future due to the risk of criminal charges. In the militarized zone of Jammu and Kashmir, authorities have shut down many newspapers and limited the access to internet services. Hindi news channel NDTV had been told to cease broadcasting for 24 hours after the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting found a problem with their reporting during an attack on an Indian Air Force Base by militants. PM Modi has encouraged senior government officials to follow his steps and give very limited access to press, he himself has only done a few interviews during his time as Prime Minister. Additionally, a handful of journalists have even been killed by Hindu nationalist groups and others during times of great political violence.
I use Dahl’s conceptualization of democracy in relation to India because it offers a comprehensive selection of criteria that highlight different aspects of true democracy. If I were to use Przeworski’s conceptualization, India’s democracy would seem relatively strong. This conceptualization is mainly to distinguish between democracy and dictatorship, and therefore uses a minimalistic conceptualization of democracy. Contestation (determined by ex-ante uncertainty, ex-post irreversibility and repeatability) to fill government offices is what defines a democracy. As long as the chief executive and the legislature are elected, and there is more than one party, the regime is considered democratic. India is easily considered democratic by these measures, as it is according to Dahl’s rules except for the emphasis on freedom of press. Polity IV’s measures are a complement to this as well. They write in their 2010 report that while the elections in India are extremely free and fair, “political violence continues to be a common feature of electoral politics in India.” Additionally, while the president is formally listed as the executive power, in reality the role of the executive lands with the Prime Minister. Due to the presence of coalitions in Parliament, India’s prime ministers have had to let go of the values of their parties in order to maintain a majority faction in parliament. This acts as a strong accountability system, as the power of a majority is more beneficial to a party than strongly pursuing ideological goals.
While India is without doubt a democracy, the largest in the world, in fact, the lack of development, rise and persistence of inequality and illiteracy, and the divisive nature of the communalism in its politics has shown that democracy does not necessarily lead to economic development, nor make the country better off. There are serious foundational problems within the country that need fixed, mainly the apathy to corruption and emphasis on religious or caste identity rather than a single strong national identity has allowed many problems to persist and worsen. The lack of literacy allows the “bad” politicians to continue to be reelected, since people will simply vote based on who is more sympathetic to their religion or ethnicity. I would add conditions to Dahl’s conceptualization of democracy, such as the decrease of political violence after a democratic transition, and decrease of inequality, since if the people are being represented fairly, they should become better off. Until this starts to occur in India, I would say democracy is hurting the citizens, allowing political elites to play games with the citizens to maintain power, as they divide and conquer on superficial terms making the rest of the country continuously shed violence on one another.
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Federal Governmental System
Federalism is a division of power between a central government and smaller regional government. Both levels of government share authority over their citizens. In the United States federalism can be seen in the distribution of powers between the federal government and state governments (Magleby, Light and Nemacheck, 2015). This duality is mandated and protected by the United States Constitution.
The Framers of the Constitution recognized that the United States covered a vast area and consisted of a very diverse group of people. Therefore, they needed state governments to have some control to adapt to the unique situations that may occur. Framers also knew that a division of power between the federal government and the states would keep the federal government from obtaining too much power, which could potentially be abused (Magleby, Light and Nemacheck, 2015). Additionally, the state and local governments were closer to the people, where local citizens could participate and interact with the government. This also provided a training ground for future national politicians, allowing them to gain experience before running for federal offices (Magleby, Light and Nemacheck, 2015). Lastly, federalism encouraged each state to experiment with policy and democracy, in what Justice Brandeis called “laboratories of democracy” (Magleby, Light and Nemacheck, 2015).
This concept of a “laboratories of democracy” refers to each state being able to implement different policies and legislation based on their unique problems, needs, desires and culture. Current United States Federal Judge Sutton writes, “Fifty imperfect solutions—each grounded in constitutional guarantees the States have chosen for themselves, crafted to meet the peculiar needs of each State, and implemented by accountable state officials—are almost certainly superior to one imperfect solution. (White, 2018). Furthermore, states can learn from one another about what policies are effective and which are not. Other states or even the nation can adopt successful legislation. Additionally, if policies are ineffective or have negative effects on citizens, these policies are limited to only impact one state instead of the entire nation (Gardener, 1996). However, it should be noted that states must still operate within the rules of their own Constitution and the United States Constitution. Additionally, despite the term experiment, it is not a methodical process where two ideas are tested against one another to see which is better. Instead legislation is experimental because it may be unclear what the consequences, especially unintended consequences may be (Gardener, 1996). There is a hope that legislation will solve a problem, improve life, better the economy or right a social wrong in the state but the actual result is unknown (Gardener, 1996).
Experimentation has been successful in many cases. Massachusetts was the first state to experiment with universal health care, something that has now been adapted at a national level. New York was the first to pass common core in education, with an emphasis own universal curriculum standards, something was eventually adapted by almost every state. Wisconsin pioneered Welfare to Work programs, which is now a national policy (Magleby, Light and Nemacheck, 2015).
Experimentation can go also very wrong. States over turn their own laws on a regular basis, especially those revolving around tax rates. Additionally, states can attempt to pass laws that impede the rights of a group of citizens due to cultural pressure from the population, despite this being forbidden by the Constitution. Examples of this are the Jim Crow laws in the south that established segregation or more recently, state bans on gay marriage (White, 2018). In these cases, laws were challenged through the judicial system and eventually overturned by the United States Supreme Court.
State experimentation continues to today. Oregon, Colorado, Arizona and other states are attempting to boost voter turnout by having the option to mail in ballots for elections. Four states have recently legalized marijuana. California has some of the strictest environmental protection laws (Greeve, 2001). States are experimenting with immigration policies on both ends of the spectrum. In these cases, each state is passing legislation based on the unique needs and wants of their people. States who are considering such legislation may wait and see the effectiveness of the legislation currently in use and may learn from their mistakes. Conversely, other states may not want these laws to be passed and are instead focused on other issues based upon their own needs and wants, allowing each state to adapt to their own micro culture.
As the “laboratories of democracy” examples show, federalism is not always positive. For example, it can be difficult to determine if the state or federal government is responsible for an issue. This may cause delays in responses to issues, problems or crises (Magleby, Light and Nemacheck, 2015). Division of power can also make it difficult to hold elected officials accountable, as again it can be unclear who is responsible or at fault for an issue. Layers of government can also cause redundancies, inefficiencies and inequalities, making government less productive and effective (Magleby, Light and Nemacheck, 2015). Lastly, the lack of uniformity in laws can create conflict between states or between states and the national government. This is especially true with social laws that may express very different views compared to other regions of the nation. The above examples of the Jim Crow laws and gay marriage bans are specific examples (Magleby, Light and Nemacheck, 2015). These both cause social unrest, protesting and in some cases violence.
Not all governments are federalist. In fact unitary systems of government are the most common. Under this system all governmental power resides at the national level. The national government can delegate power to smaller units as it sees fit and can also remove that delegated power at any time (Magleby, Light and Nemacheck, 2015). The United Kingdom, Japan, Italy, and China are examples of countries with unitary systems of government (Magleby, Light and Nemacheck, 2015). Unitary systems are more efficient and cut through some of the red tape. However, errors in policy impact the entire nation and can be devastating. Additionally, there is more potential for power to be abused in this type of system. This unfortunately happens frequently in Africa.
No governmental system is perfect. In fact the Framers of the Constitution were counting on this imperfection to keep tyranny and absolute power from occurring. Federalism is effective in the United States because we are diverse culture where each state has their own economy, culture, need and wants. By allowing each state to experiment with their own policies, states can learn from one another and chose legislation that best fits their micro culture. The Supreme Court can overrule laws that prohibit the rights of others, again keeping the balance of power in place.
References:
Gardener, J. (1996) The "States-as-Laboratories" Metaphor in State Constitutional Law, Valparaiso Law Review, Vol 30, Number 2. Pages 475-491. Retrieved from: https://scholar.valpo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1888&context=vulr Greve, M. (2001, March 21) Laboratories of Democracy: Anatomy of a Metaphor. American Enterprise Institute. Retrieved from: https://www.aei.org/publication/laboratories-of-democracy/print/ Magleby, D., Light, P. and Nemacheck, C. (2015) Government by the People: 2014 Elections and Updates Edition. Boston, MA: Pearson. White, Adam (2018, June 8) Laboratories of Liberty. The Weekly Standard. Retrieved from: https://www.weeklystandard.com/adam-j-white/laboratories-of-liberty
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Federalism in History
Sometime recently coming into impact the US structure required approval by nine states. It’s was also long complex battle some time recently sudden US confirmation. The states act inquisitive about holding their control and thus they emphatically stood up to the confirmation of a unused solid central government. Those favoring the confirmation came to be known as federalists whereas those contradicting it came to be known as anti-federalists. there existed endless and complex differences between the federalist and the hostile to- federalists. The federalist sees may be way better be named as patriot. they had remained instrumental within the forming of the unused us structure. a arrangement of papers that were composed by alexander hamilton james madison and john jay clarified and guarded the structure as well as guarded its arrangements.
The federalists indeed guarded what was the weakest point within the structure a need of charge of rights.nTheir essays recommended that the securities were adequate which the congress might continuously propose corrections. on the other hand were the anti-federalists like patrick henry who recommended that such a structure might lead to a perilously effective national government. within the to begin with section of federalist number 10 james madison composed among the various focal points guaranteed by a well-constructed union none merits to be more precisely created than its propensity to hinder and administration the savagery of group.
The companion of well-liked governments ne'er finds himself most anxious for his or her character and destiny as when he mulls over their affinity to this unsafe bad habit. Madison 1787 James Madison had been attempting to protect the shortcomings of the structure and clarify its qualities which were not qualities within the locate of the anti-federalists. in the long run the federalists were able to influence a few of the anti-federalists as well through their papers and papers. among all the anti-federalist papers brutus 15 could be a exceptionally vital one. It is an antifederalist paper that hits on the shortcoming of the us structure and the developing control of the government. Within the opening passage the creator clarifies i said in my final number that the supreme court beneath this structure would be lifted up over all other control within the government and subject to no control.
The trade of this paper are planning to be as an occasion this and to authenticate the threat that will result from it structure society 1788 usually what the author does all through the paper clarifying the ills of the us structure and the modern government to be shaped beneath it. Whereas the antifederalists kept on contradict the modern structure in their papers the issue was that they may never join together over the states and so seem not as far as anyone knows bargain a solid blow to their target the modern structure. Their to begin with major victory was that they seem constrain the modern congress under the unused structure to set up a charge of rights that seem guarantee the freedoms which concurring to the antifederalist the modern structure violated. the antifederalists passionately contradicted the structure as well as proceeded to talk against it through the antifederalist papers. Be that as it may since they were not joined together they might not significantly apply their control.
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Federalism and Hurricanes
Federalism is how state and national government work together to divide power and functions. It had a great influence on the making of the constitution and its fundamental’s. Federalism impacts all areas of the government from simple local government all the way up to federal government. Like many things federalism has advantages and disadvantages. When it comes to communication and federalism they do not work hand and hand together, as seen during a natural disaster, hurricane Katrina.
Hurricane Katrina was the largest hurricane recorded to have touch land in the united states. It had struck the southern coast of the united states the morning on august 28, 2005. So much damage was caused from this disaster, more than 1,500 deaths occurred in Louisiana and about 230 in Mississippi. It left damages over $81 billion and cost about $160 billion. Hours after the hurricane had touch land Communication had shut down completely. Citizens could not contact their local government officials because their cellphones and landlines weren’t working. 3 million phone lines and 1,000 cellular towers were knocked over and out of service.
During the video of “the storm” it was repeated many times that nobody knew who was exactly in charge to handle the effects of this disaster. This hurricane had exposed numerous of flaws in the federalism approach in natural disasters at each level of government. It showed how unprepared each level of government was unable to communicate effectively to get anything done. Many officials would point fingers on who to blame or who was supposed to do what. In article mega disasters and federalism, it states “in the face of terrible emergencies the serving grace of federalism is supposed to be its greater flexibility, responsiveness, and capacity to mobilize mutual aid”.
Interoperability is when computers or software are to exchange and make use of information. Allowing states to have this freedom is problematic and dangerous to the concept of federalism. Its problematic because we don’t know how much states systems can handle and if they are compatible with the federal communications. The way things had occurred during hurricane Katrina showed how we should reevaluate interoperability and federalism.
Hurricane Pam was an exercise that forecasted hurricane Katrina. Everything that had occurred in this practice most definitely did occur when hurricane Katrina had hit. According to “The Storm” officials had made commitments and gave out false hope in which they would carry in when a certain event would play out. Since FEMAS exercise was cut key planning decisions were not yet made, and many things such as care of patients, communications were not yet announced. A lot of things could have been learned from this practice such as proper evacuation and being able to prepare for such horrible disaster.
FEMA is federal emergency management agency, which was in charge to distribute aid to the states and help officials to take care of catastrophic disasters.t This agency was launched by executive order in April 1979. Many people were blaming FEMA for not taking care of the conditions cause by hurricane Katrina. They had received so much criticism even by President Bush. President Bush had established the relief and rescue oppositions were unacceptable and wanted to remove this agency from the homeland and security act. FEMA response is known to be slow, disorganized, and profligate. In Which it shouldn’t be as stated in Crisis communication “views communication with the public as a one-way street: information is supposed to flow from officials to the public via warnings sent out over TV, radio and other media”.
The core problems within FEMA can be solved by many different factors. For example, they can work on issues of deploying slowly by working on quick communication practices. By having quicker communication, it allows them to get relief to those who need it faster. Slow response of FEMA during Katrina was one of the biggest issues at this point in time. Another big issue was, how unorganized they were and organization is a big reason as to why they were hated after Hurricane Katrina. To fix the issue of disorganization they need to go over the roles of each position. They also need to do extensive interviews of the candidates wanting a job with FEMA. The current director of FEMA is Brock Long. He began his administration of the federal emergency management agency in June 2017. He is more than capable in working and serving as a director because he has 16 years of assisting and support local and state as well as federal governments with building emergency managements.
A couple days have been going by before President George Bush had associated his self with Hurricane Katrina. He was found vacationing days before, on his way back to the white house his plane had flown over the disaster in which many photographers took a picture of Bush’s “Grim-Face”. This photo was later released, this picture had citizens talking and realizing he was too distant from the storm and what was actually going on below. He was then invited to visit the area in which he had declined. Although many people were angered by this he thought he wouldn’t want to disturb the rescuing and recovery efforts. Many of bush’s supports said his lack of response and slow reaction to it damaged his reputation. His reputation is still on the line and has yet to recover. Some say he may never recover. People were very disappointed in him, even celebrity Kanye west was accusing him of being racist and “not caring” for the well-being of black people.
Many lessons were learned through the horrible disaster of hurricane Katrina. The number one lesson being communication needs to be improvised and number one priority. Some experts believe we may never be “ready” for something that big to happen but you may want to consider how well your institution is prepared for any kinds of threats and all levels of organizations. A lot of people didn’t know how to evacuate properly or what to prioritize when evacuating, so practicing and knowing where to go when a situation like this occurs can make things run smoothly and let other people know how to help others.
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Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation: Governing Struggles Post-Independence
After the Americans declared themselves independent from England, they were left with the duty of deciding how they should be governed. At first, people were not comfortable with a strong centralized government as they feared it would turn into a dictatorship or another monarchy. Since the people feared a strong centralized government, they created the Articles of Confederation, which was purposely made to be a weak government. The Articles of Confederation were very limited in what they could do, and had a wide range of what they couldn’t do. The majority of what they could do was have the power to declare war, negotiate treaties, and make alliances, while also be in charge of the army. So pretty much the Articles of Confederation only had the power to determine how foreign affairs will go. They didn’t have the power to tax, and they had to ask the states for money. This meant that in order to fund the army, they had to ask the States to fund it, as only the states had the power to tax the people. This ended up being a huge problem for America as they couldn’t properly supply the army. Finally they decided a weak centralized government could not effectively support the growing United States, and they came back together at the Constitutional Convention in 1787.
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How Effective is Federalism in the U.S.
American federalism has evolved in many ways over the years. The common theme among the different types of federalism is balancing power between federal government and lower levels of government. There are those who shed light mainly on the disadvantages of federalism, but there are also those who choose to shift their focus to the advantages and ways that federalism can empower citizens. Does competition among state and federal government really focus on the well-being of citizens? How do mobility and choice tie into federalism? Is there a pending resurgence of federalism in our nation? Federalism is a unique system of government. In America, there are various levels of government such as local, state and federal. The idea of federalism is that the divided authority will counter an all-powerful federal government. The Tenth Amendment is the basis for American federalism (Unknown author, https://definitions.uslegal.com/f/federalism/, unknown publish date). This Amendment addresses the relationship between state and federal government (Unknown author, https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/tenth_amendment, unknown publish date). To understand federalism, it’s important to know the history of the system, what inspired the idea to begin with, how it’s evolved, the ways it affects citizens, etc. Around the 1780’s most nations had unitary governments. A unitary government is a system in which the central government wields either most or all political authority.
Americans specifically rebelled against the unitary government of Britain. Understandably, when forming the U.S., early Americans weren’t too keen on the idea of jumping right back into this type of system. Confederations were another popular system of government around this time. This type of government gives a majority of the power to states. One of the main issues with a confederation is weakened central authority. Delegates at the Constitutional Convention came up with a tentative solution. Enter: federalism. The U.S. first saw dual federaism from 1789-1933. In dual federalism, it’s very apparent which level of government has what authority. For this reason, dual federalism is also referred to as “layer cake” federalism. Defined “layers” of governmental responsibility, just like a layer cake. Next, cooperative federalism (1933-1981) was implemented. Cooperative federalism is also called “marble cake” federalism. The reason for this is that in this system, different government functions all seem sort of blended together. While a cake with flavors that intermingle is quite enjoyable, as a system of government, it can become confusing. Who’s authorized to do what? That’s a question cooperative federalism poses. From 1981-2009, the United States saw the rise of new federalism. New federalism emphasizes the importance of local and state governments. The lines of authority are even more swirled together with new federalism than with cooperative federalism. Introduced in 2009 and still in practice today, we have progressive federalism.
Progressive federalism, of course, grants the federal government power to set certain ground rules for what states can do, but ultimately the idea is that states will have the bulk of the power (Unknown author, Types of Federalism, the Basis for American Government, https://www.dummies.com/education/politics-government/types-of-federalism-the-basis-for-american-government/, unknown publish date). A prime example of federalism is the movement to make the recreational use of marijuana legal. Marijuana is classified by the federal government as a controlled substance. Even though recreational use of marijuana is still federally prohibited, the Obama administration inspired a more laid-back attitude regarding marijuana. States are generally allowed to decide how they’d like to penalize (or not penalize) citizens if they’re found to be in possession of marijuana. Though, states still must meet specific requirements (like not allowing children to end up with marijuana in their possession) (G. Lopez, Marijuana Legalization, Explained, https://www.vox.com/platform/amp/identities/2018/8/20/17938372/marijuana-legalization-federal-prohibition-drug-scheduling-system, November 14, 2018). Competitive federalism is again, based on the Tenth Amendment. Its main concept is that states should be able to compete with one another on important policy issues. The idea is that if states are given the money and authority to do so, there’s more room for beneficial changes and breakthroughs (M. Mayer, Power to the States, https://www.usnews.com/news/the-report/articles/2018-05-31/right-and-left-should-come-together-on-competitive-federalism, May 31, 2018). One major argument made by those who support competitive federalism is that it liberates citizens.
More specifically, supporters argue that competitive federalism gives constituents the ability to act as government consumers by finding which state best fits their specific needs and then moving there (O. Lipsett, the Failure of Federalism: Does Competitive Federalism Actually Protect Individual Rights?, Constitutional Journal of Law, March 2008). Choice and mobility are recurring themes throughout the multiple points of view on federalism overall. The new era known that brought about competitive federalism surfaced around 1978. At this time, state governments and federal government began engaging in competition with one another for citizens, support and resources. Around 1928 to 1978, the federal government had an apparent fiscal edge. This was known as the centralization period. Competitive federalism was a result of the loss of that advantage (J. Shannon, J.E. Kee, Public Budgeting & Finance, Volume 9, Issue 4, December 1989). There’s a lot of questioning about whether or not competitive federalism is truly beneficial to citizens. For example, in United States v. Windsor, the issue was same-sex marriage. The Defense of Marriage Act (known hereafter as DOMA) was passed in 1996. DOMA allowed states to decide whether or not they’d recognize same-sex marriages. At the time DOMA was in effect, the federal government specifically defined “marriage” as a union between a male and a female. Because of this, many same-sex couples didn’t have access to some significant benefits heterosexual married couples did (joint tax filing, estate-tax exemption, etc.).
The Court ultimately ruled that the states were permitted to choose whether or not to define marriage. Then, a woman who had been directly feeling the negative effects of DOMA took monumental action. Edith Windsor sued the federal government and succeeded. Her victory resulted in DOMA being repealed. It was determined that the federal government was not authorized to define marriage This is a significant example of competitive federalism because same-sex couples could move to states that wouldn’t deny them marital benefits. (Unknown author, 3.4 Competitive Federalism Today, https://cnx.org/contents/W8wOWXNF@9.1:dml__-Ad@2/Competitive-Federalism-Today, unknown publish date) Federalism can be empowering to citizens. First, there are many states that are extremely focused on individual rights. Since states are given leeway to make decisions on policy issues, some citizens who may not feel their rights are protected in one state may feel differently in another. This is closely related to citizen choice. Citizens are empowered because they’re given options to find a state that could meet unfulfilled needs. Citizens also can find themselves empowered through the emphasis on state government’s power. More Americans seem to trust state and local levels of government than in the national government. This is understandable, as these levels of government offer quicker and more efficient responses to constituents’ needs (Morone & Kersh, By the People: Third Edition, 2016).
Private ownership is the first of three private economic principles. It’s the responsibility of the government to determine who owns what, permit property owners to use their own judgement to determine the best use of their private property. The government must also protect private property. In nations that don’t have an organized, formal system for private ownership, there are lots of issues. If government isn’t establishing legal rules that determine who owns what, there’s not much they can do to protect the property (T. West, The Heritage Foundation’s First Principles Series, The Economic Principles of Americas Founders: Property Rights, Free Markets and Sound Money, No. 32, August 30, 2010). Market freedom is the next private economic principle. Everyone must be entitled to sell what they what, when they want and to who they want for a reasonable price that’s mutually agreed upon. There are some exceptions, of course. The role of the government in market freedom is to clarify contracts and ensure the terms are upheld ( (T. West, The Heritage Foundation’s First Principles Series, The Economic Principles of Americas Founders: Property Rights, Free Markets and Sound Money, No. 32, August 30, 2010). A command (or planned) economy is the opposite of a free market. Command economies place centralized power in the government to delegate how much of certain goods are produced and how they’re sold and used (L. Kramer, What’s the Difference Between a Market Economy and a Command Economy, https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/100314/whats-difference-between-market-economy-and-command-economy.asp, January 9, 2018). The last private economic principle is stable money. There needs to be a reliable way of measuring market value. A lack of reliable money can lead to unpredictable fluctuations in the prices of services and goods (T. West, The Heritage Foundation’s First Principles Series, The Economic Principles of Americas Founders: Property Rights, Free Markets and Sound Money, No. 32, August 30, 2010). Mobility and choice are key topics within federalism. There are those who are of the opinion that federalism offers citizens more choices. Those who are in this camp of thought argue that citizens can simply base their decisions on where to move according to which states offer which benefits, programs, resources, etc.
However, there are also those who argue that people aren’t always able to easily utilize that mobility (Morone & Kersh, By the People: Third Editon, 2016). Federalism relates to centralization and addresses same. The fiscal correlation between federalism and centralization is that in theory, lower levels of government are given more freedom to make decisions. Federalism also directly relates to policy centralization. Again, since federalism aims to balance power, there’s a drive to let states take more charge on policy matters (J. Rodden, Comparative Federalism and Decentralization: On Meaning and Measurement, Comparative Politics, Vol. 36, No. 4, July 2004). One advantage of federalism is protection against autocracy. This is arguably one of the most important advantages of a federalist system. With power divvied up between, there’s less of a chance of the nation falling under tyrannical rule. Checks and balances are important for this reason (R. Wiseman, Advantages & Disadvantages of Federalism, https://bloomp.net/articles/benefits-of-federalism.htm, unknown publish date).
Another advantage of federalism is that citizen participation is increased. As mentioned previously, citizens show more trust in local levels of government. Because the federal government isn’t given omnipotent authority, citizens are more inclined to participate in political activities (R. Wiseman, Advantages & Disadvantages of Federalism, https://bloomp.net/articles/benefits-of-federalism.htm, unknown publish date). A third advantage of federalism is that state governments are far more responsive to the needs of the citizens. This is very closely tied in with increased citizen participation. This leads to better conflict management and a more efficient system (R. Wiseman, Advantages & Disadvantages of Federalism, https://bloomp.net/articles/benefits-of-federalism.htm, unknown publish date). Now, of course, there are certain disadvantages of federalism. The first is that federalism makes it possible for there to be policy imbalances among the states. (R. Wiseman, Advantages & Disadvantages of Federalism, https://bloomp.net/articles/benefits-of-federalism.htm, unknown publish date). An example that comes to mind is the case of United States v. Windsor, which I discussed earlier in this paper. A second disadvantage of federalism is that it makes unanimity quite difficult. We are a nation of different political parties. When local officials are in charge of parties in a state, the politics can get particularly chaotic (Morone & Kersh, By the People: Third Edition, 2016). Finally, as previously discussed when reviewing the history of federalism in America, it was made very obvious that blurred lines of authority can pose various issues. Overlapping governmental responsibilities can breed coordination issues (Morone & Kersh, By the People: Third Edition, 2016).
There are some factors that may be paving the way for a resurgence of federalism in America. Historically, America has had a national government smaller than other nations. During significant events such as the World Wars, the Great Depression and the Cold War, the size grew. However, with each increase in size, efforts have been consistent to reduce size again. Another factor is that Americans have displayed a tremendous amount of civic voluntarism since the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This means citizens are getting involved in public life of their own volition. This voluntary spirit leads to political innovations and positive changes in policies across the nation. Finally, checks and balances, ensuring that public officials cannot act unilaterally, could has and will continue to lead to great strides for our nation (Morone & Kersh, By the People: Third Edition, 2016). Throughout the process of examining the positive and negative aspects of a federalist system, I do believe that it’s an effective system. Checks and balances, citizen involvement and responsive officials can all lead the way to improve upon this system and work toward empowering the nation’s citizens more than ever before.
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Federalism Project
Federalism is an important part of how the US, among other nations function today. Federalism has allowed for freedom and growth by giving people the right to choose how small governments function under a larger central government. Federalism has changed how governments run in many nations for the better by empowering citizens and allowing for a more fair way for people to live. The many benefits of Federalism include but are not limited to: mobility, choice, economic privacy, and allows for a less dictatorial government system by stepping away from the ideals of centralization or a centralized government.
In the 1700’s most unions had unitary governments, governments in which one central government controlled all political authority. Federalism was brought about during this time to try and separate and step away from that widely accepted idea and the idea of centralism to have a more divided and fair government that met the needs of larger amount of people (Kersh and Monroe 83). The principal of federalism is dividing the constitutional provisions and powers giving power to all different kinds of governments divided across the country. Federalism simplified is one central government with multiple smaller governments and units like the states (Kersh and Monroe 84).
Competitive federalism is when governments compete with each other. This can include local, state and other regional governments. I believe that competitive federalism is a good thing for people because it gives people the freedom to choose how they want to live and what kind of governing they live under. Competitive federalism allows for many different types of governing and is beneficial to individuals because they have the option to leave a localized government if not fulfilled by the results of it. Government compete for individuals by doing what they think people are happier with. An example of competitive federalism is shown in the article when citizens of New York were unhappy with the amount of taxes they had to pay in the state, so citizens reacted by going to New Jersey and spending their money their because the taxes were lower. In turn, New York opted for no tax days in order to appease their citizens (Greve). This is a great example of how because of the competition between two small governments, the laws were adjusted to meet the needs and wants of the people.
Federalism empowers citizens by allowing the citizens choices to affect the way governments are run. Voting is an important part of federalism and voting in small governments allows for more diversity and more options for people to choose. Citizens are empowered when they are given a choice of how they want to live and what kinds of rules and constructs to live under. Empowerment comes from the ability to choose for yourself if one is happy under the government they live in and if not, have the option to exit and go somewhere where the individuals needs are met. When citizens have the power to act a certain way and influence their government because of it, it gives a sense of empowerment. This can only really be done when small divided governments are utilized.
Federalism replicates private economic principals in various ways. Federalism replicated the idea of property rights by allowing citizens to own private property. Federalism replicates free mobility by allowing competition between companies and firms on a large scale This benefits citizens because it helps with keeping prices for consumers fair. Federalism also supports the allocations of public spending because it is up to state governments instead of one large centralized government deciding how money should be spent throughout an entire union. Giving this power to smaller governments allows for public spending to be allocated to more specific needs of an area.
Mobility and choice are fundamentals of federalism allowing for the citizen to have the choice of how they live and allows for “exit” from unfavorable governments and situations. Mobility allows citizen the option to leave an area of government if they’re unsatisfied with it. The example about New York and New Jersey that is provided in the article can also be applied to the concept of mobility and choice because the people in New York were able to mobilize travel to New Jersey, a different state government with lower taxes, to do their shopping because the taxes in New York were too high. The taxes were lower in New Jersey due to it having a separate state government from New York (Greve). Mobility gives individuals the freedom to move around if need be. Choice is petty self explanatory. Citizens living among a federalism style government are giving a choice to choose where they want to be based on which government and laws they want to live under. This is because federalism allows for many small governments to exist among each other but work separately.
Centralization is defined as the control of activity or group of people under a single authority. Great Britain lives under a centralized government and the US has tried to sway as far away from this style of government as possible in hopes to give individuals more freedom to choose how they may be governed (Greve). Centralization has little room for addressing the needs of all individuals because there are many different groups of individuals who exist in different areas and require different needs. There is no way to please everyone or even the majority under a centralized form of government. To do so there must be many different governments controlling smaller groups of people whose needs relate to each other. This is done by allowing many small governments to co-exist with each other. Federalism is the idea that supports this type of government. Federalism is quite opposite of centralization or a total centralized government. Federalism addresses that centralization is not in favor of the citizens because it does not allow the individual to choose between what laws they’re living under. Federalism came about to give freedom to choose to the individual. State governments allow for better ability to suit localized conditions.
There are many benefits of Federalism. Federalism it is a form of government that allows the individual to have more control over their lives rather than being dictated by one centralized government, a person has the ability to choose from multiple governments being held together by one strong centralized government. Citizens are able to participate more in factors and decisions that will affect individual lives whereas centralization cannot include a variety of citizens’ opinions or outlooks. Having localized governments increases citizen participation and allows for more individualized needs to be met. With the implementation of federalism, specific needs of a smaller more localized group of individuals are able to be taken into consideration when making important government decisions. Opposite of this, a centralized government cannot account for more individualized needs. The major disadvantage that can come from federalism is the ability for states to have major inequalities and for there to be too much competition. Too much competition can lead to less attention to the needs of the lower class and result in the needs of a large majority not being met (Kersh and Monroe 87).
I believe that the real meaning of Federalism and how it is supposed to work has sort of been lost today. This makes people turn against the idea of federalism because it is not being used to the best of its ability. Federalism will probably make a resurgence because of the way competitive federalism benefits the individual needs of citizens. Competitive federalism allows for more economic freedom which should be in favor of American citizens. Citizens also play a larger role in control of their governments when federalism is enacted and I believe that is another reason it may have its revival. There is no form of government that fits every single person’s specific needs but the goal of federalism and how the government works under it, is the form of government that fits the most amount of people’s needs and therefore one of the best ways a government should be run.
is one of, if not the best way to run a union. The reasons for this are its benefits from competitive governments and that having multiple localized governments is the best system in order to individualize and meet the needs of the largest number of people. Federalism broke away from the largely accepted “centralized government” to provide a system that allows citizens to have more freedom play a greater role in the government decisions that affect their daily lives.
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Federalism and Economic Empowerment of Indigenous People in Gambella
- 2.7.6. ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE
- 2.7.7. ESTABLISHMENT OF SPECIAL ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT FUNDS
- 2.7.8. RAISING SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE LEVELS
- 2.8 ETHIOPIA EXPERIENCE
- 2.8.1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ECONOMIC GROWTH, EMPLOYMENT AND POVERTY REDUCTION:
- 2.8.2 THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURE IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
2.7.6. ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE
To enhance the economic empowerment of the citizen the Government established an Entrepre-neurship Development Institute (EDI) in order to enhance technical, marketing and trade devel-opment skills. The EDI will oversee all skills enhancement initiatives under the National Economic Empowerment Policy. However, this institute will not directly be involved in offering training but will develop curricula that will be used by various learning institutions. The institute will be under the management of one of the higher learning institutions such as the University Dares Salaam (UDSM), the Institute of Finance. (United Republic of Tanzania January, 2014 P.23)
2.7.7. ESTABLISHMENT OF SPECIAL ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT FUNDS
The Government establish and make use of various Funds to bring about effective implementa-tion of the economic empowerment initiatives. These include the Mwananchi Empowerment Fund; the Credit Guarantee Fund; the Privatizations Trust Fund; and the Rural Electrification Fund; established after thorough studies and consultations, in order to support the implementation of economic empowerment initiatives. The Government contributes to the Funds not directly involved in their management the government appointed bank to manage the Funds. (United Re-public of Tanzania January, 2014 P: 24)
2.7.8. RAISING SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE LEVELS
A low level of skills, education and lack of resources, limit the effective participation of many countries in economic activities. A low level of education is amongst the reasons why some citi-zens’ continue to embrace inhibitive customs and traditions that are inimical to development. The absence of an Economic Empowerment Policy was amongst the reasons for the stale met. In this regard, the Government has resolved to put in place an Economic Empowerment Policy that will serve as a roadmap for the participation of the majority of the citizens of in all sectors of the economy. Weaknesses that make most borrowers not creditworthy include lack of knowledge and experience in preparing bankable projects as well as lack of collateral and equity funds to start business (United Republic of Tanzania January, 2014 P:14)
2.8 ETHIOPIA EXPERIENCE
2.8.1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ECONOMIC GROWTH, EMPLOYMENT AND POVERTY REDUCTION:
- Policy and reform measures introduced since then have led to an economic transformation and private sector participation. A privatization program embarked upon in 1994 has resulted in the privatization over 250 public enterprises. The government has committed itself to eradicating poverty. The strategies worked out and implemented by the government have already begun to bear fruit as evidenced by over 11% average economic growth in the last five years (women empowering humanity, 2000)
The economic progress has put the country among the top performing economies in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly among the non-oil producing country. The country has vision to attain a middle-income status within 20 years. Macroeconomic data indicate that Ethiopia is well placed to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) at the end of 2015.
One of the goals attached to the growth performance of the economy is achieving Goal 1 of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). One of the key channels through which this goal would be realized is through job creation that is remunerative. Pursuing broad based growth through focusing on agriculture and rural development has been at the centre of Ethiopia’s po-verty eradication agenda. (p.5)
2.8.2 THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURE IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Agriculture plays many roles in the economic development of the country. The role of agriculture include providing additional food for rapidly expanding population, expanding the market for industrial product, providing additional foreign exchange for the country, mobilizing government revenue from the rural area and increase income of the rural people. (Teshome Adugna, 2012)
- Providing additional food- the first role of agriculture is to provide additional food for rapidly expanding population. When output expands with an increasing productivity, it increases the income of the farmers. Rise in per capital income leads to substantial rise in the demand for food.
- Providing employment opportunity– the role of agriculture is to provide employment opportunity to the labor force in the country. In Ethiopia agriculture provide 85% of em-ployment oppotchaptery. As agricultural productivity and farm income increase –nonfarm rural employments expand and diversify. Landless and marginal farmers are primary engage in non agriculture activities. Some activities in which they are engage in are manufacturing of textile, handcrafts, leather and mental working; construction of house and others building.
- Increasing income of the rural people- lastly, increase in rural income as a result of the agricultural surplus tends to improve rural welfare. Peasants start consuming more food especially of higher nutritional value in the form of superior quality cereal, eggs, ghee, milk, fruits etc. Thus an increase in agriculture surplus has an effect on raising the stan-dard living of the rural people
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Governmental Action during and after Hurricane Katrina
Hurricane Katrina was one of the most destructive hurricanes to ever hit the US. Hurricane Katrina formed on August 23, 2005, and in less than a week, it became a Category 4 hurricane causing more than $108 billion in damages. Subsequent flooding caused the destruction of more than 200,000 homes and the deaths of at least 1,836 people. By August 31, 2005, the city of New Orleans was completely submerged under water. Many faulted the immense destruction on the local, state, and federal government because of their delayed and inadequate response. The government’s failure to deliver assistance to citizens due to their lack of communication and preparedness caused a delayed and weak response. Hurricane Katrina illustrates the importance of federalism, and how combining and sharing national, state, and local government powers is crucial during times of distress.
The local government is responsible for creating and executing an emergency evacuation plan. During Hurricane Katrina, the local government failed to execute the the city’s disaster plan. On August 28, New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin issued an emergency evacuation order, however, it was issued less than 24 hours before Hurricane Katrina would hit landfall. This delayed action caused thousands of citizens with no way to evacuate. More than 1.5 million people evacuated, but approximately 150,000 residents were either resistant to evacuate or unable. Additionally, Mayor Ray failed to use the school buses available to assist in evacuating residents which was something already established in the New Orleans Disaster plan which he chose to ignore. Mayor Ray opted instead to send those who could not evacuate to the Louisiana Superdome without providing any food, water, or security. Once the the government realized that the superdome was ineffective, there was another delay because both the federal and state government could not agree on whose responsibility it was to transport the citizens. Disaster continued when the local government of New Orleans attempted to manage the disaster from a hotel ballroom with undefined communications plans instead of having properly staffed and functioning Emergency Operation Center. On September 1, almost a week after Hurricane Katrina hit landfall, New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin finally issued an SOS for help from the federal government.
On August 25, Governor Kathleen Blanco declared a state of emergency in Louisiana. The main criticism involving the state government was the governor's slowness in requesting federal troops. Governor Blanco did make a request to the National government for additional troops, however, the request to the Federal National Guard Bureau was not made until three days later after the most of the city was already flooded. Governor Blanco defended herself by arguing that she was unaware of the specific types or number of troops needed. Additionally, the task of body recovery was slow and unclear as bodies went uncollected for several days. The state and federal government remained indecisive on a recovery plan casuing bodies decaying in the streets of New Orleans. While FEMA claimed they were waiting for a request from Governor Blanco, Governor Blanco blamed FEMA for the delay. The state government proved to be inefficient and unprepared for the mass destruction Hurricane Katrina brought.
While local and state governments, who have primary responsibility for local disasters, were under heavy scrutiny, President Bush received the most criticism. Many believed that rather than utilizing all of the resources at his disposal, Bush continued to view the issue from afar and waited for it to sort itself out. After four days of the hurricane, President Bush signed a $10.5 billion bill and ordered active-duty troops to assist with relief efforts. However, many units were short staffed because some National Guard units were deployed overseas. Furthurmore, New Orleans's emergency operations executive, Terry Ebbert blamed the inadequate response on the federal government stating that "FEMA has been here three days, yet there is no command and control." Many questioned the federal government as billions of dollars had been devoted to emergency preparedness since 9/11. The national government failed to lead and work together with the local and state government which lead to confusion and slow response.
The failures of governmental action during and after Hurricane Katrina were a result of the structure of federalism. The state and local government relied too much on the national government causing unpreparedness and lack utilities to deal with catastrophic events that happened during Hurricane Katrina. A White House report found that there was “a complete breakdown in communications that paralyzed command and control and made situational awareness murky at best.” There were various problems with equipment functionality and usage that led to miscommunication. The federal system divides powers and responsibility between national, state, and local governments, but because the lack of communication, the boundaries between these areas of responsibility were not always clear. Another issue was the interpretation of the Posse Comitatus Act which is a federal statute prohibiting use of the military in civilian law enforcement. President Bush tried to use the Necessary and Proper Clause to fix the problems. During emergencies such as Hurricane Katrina, the president is permitted to deploy federal troops. In the days following Hurricane Katrina, there was concern as there was no security in New Orleans. The White House considered invoking the Insurrection Act so that he U.S. military could legally perform enforce the law in the New Orleans. It is noted that the delayed decision to invoke the Act was due to Mayor Blanco uneasiness was due to “federalism concerns—in particular, concerns about intruding on Louisiana's sovereignty.”
Hurricane Katrina exposed many major flaws in the government’s approach to disasters at each level. Katrina made it clear that the government’s emergency response system was inadequate as each level of government was unprepared and unable to communicate and cooperate efficiently amongst each other. Katrina and its effects really exposed the nature of opportunistic federalism. Opportunistic federalism is a system where governments try to pursue their own immediate interests with little regard to the other levels of government. This failed during the Huricane Katrina as seen by lack of communication and the confusion of powers distributed between not only the different levels of government but insititutions like FEMA. The state government and the local government had both different ideas and approaches to the Katrina crisis which only was not helpful as the federal government experienced confusion. If the different levels of government were able to coordinate between each other better and coordinate with the other institutions better in case of an emergency,the situation would have been relieved more rapidly and efficiently. Their approach proved to be ineffective as Hurricane Katrina had more problems than it should have. Hurricane Katrina proved that cooperative federalism is crucial in relieving and recovering from natural disasters.
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The Impact of Multiple Sclerosis on Employment
The National Multiple Sclerosis Society (as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015) states that the debilitating disease of multiple sclerosis (MS) impacts 2.3 million individuals around the world. This particular disease is considered chronic and typically worsens in severity over time, leading to an array of diverse symptoms that primarily diminish physical and cognitive abilities (Finlayson, Garcia, & Cho, 2008). As a result of these impaired abilities, employment is one of the most prominent areas of daily life impacted (Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). In fact, McFadden et al. (as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015) affirms that merely 20% of individuals with MS maintain their employment positions for 10 years post-diagnosis. This circumstance is troubling for individuals with MS due to the fact that employment is a significant aspect of a prosperous and fulfilling life (Institute of Medicine as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). A thorough examination of the etiology and nature of deviation regarding MS will be conducted to identify how specific impairments are correlated to difficulties with employment maintenance.
Etiology and Nature of Deviation
MS is categorized as a disease of the central nervous system (CNS) marked by sporadic, repetitive occasions of inflammation (Lee & Dunn as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). In the beginning of disease onset, individuals with MS typically experience alternating periods of disease progression and regression (Cameron & Klein, 2010). However, as time elapses, some individuals with MS experience an increase in symptom severity as inflammation heightens (Cameron & Klein, 2010). The inflammation ultimately engenders demyelination of neuronal axons throughout various areas in the CNS including the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves (Lee & Dunn as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). Myelin is composed of lipids and functions as an axonal covering that promotes enhanced speed and efficiency of electrical impulse conduction (Schapiro as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). When the myelin covering is diminished and damaged through the presence of inflammation, electrical impulses sent between communicating neurons decelerates (Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). As a consequence of this impulse deceleration, the communication of information between neurons loses efficiency and can ultimately obstruct an array of physical, cognitive, sensory, and psychological processes in the body (Schapiro as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015).
The exact etiology of MS is not factually declared (Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). However, biological and environmental components present possible explanations regarding the likelihood of acquiring this disease (Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). In addition, the body’s immune system may also contribute to the development of MS (Pakenham as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). Pakenham (as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015) states that individuals with MS tend to have immune system responses that trigger T cells to attack the myelin of axons in the CNS.
Impairment
The symptoms that manifest from MS fluctuate between impacted individuals (Herndon as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). Herndon (as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015) explains that the reason for symptom diversity within this population involves the differences in location and severity of the CNS damage. For instance, damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain typically lead to psychological issues, while damage to the brainstem and spinal cord engender diminished physical abilities of the bodily limbs (Fraser, Clemmons, & Bennett as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). Two prevalent impairments resulting from MS involve cognitive dysfunction and fatigue (Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). Chiaravalloti and DeLuca (as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015) state that cognitive dysfunction is found in up to 70% of individuals who suffer from MS. Although the degree and type of cognitive dysfunction differs from person to person, typical problems include challenges with memory recollection, attentive abilities, and executive skills (Pakenham as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). Fatigue, on the other hand, is present in 92% of individuals with the condition of MS (The Multiple Sclerosis Coalition as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). The Multiple Sclerosis Council for Clinical Practice Guidelines (as cited in Andreasen, Stenager, & Dalgas, 2011) explains that the presence of fatigue results in the diminished ability to execute functional activities of daily life.
Therefore, individuals with MS who specifically possess cognitive impairments and fatigue struggle to preserve the physical and cognitive abilities required to execute employment duties and maintain occupational positions (Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). In addition, these particular individuals face environmental hinderances that cause the maintenance of employment to be challenging to an even greater degree (Duggan, Fagan, & Yateman as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). As a result of these impairments, employment positions can be lost (Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). This particular circumstance is difficult for this population since employment provides a sense of purpose, leads to essential social engagement, and secures financial means (Institute of Medicine as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). Both cognitive dysfunction and fatigue represent only two out of many MS impairments that can lead to the loss of employment (Bishop & Rumrill, 2015).
Conclusion
The globally-prevalent disease of MS leads to the diminishment of physical and cognitive abilities required to complete daily functional tasks (Finlayson, Garcia, & Cho, 2008). As a result of functional limitations, employment becomes challenging for this population to maintain (Bishop & Rumrill, 2015). This circumstance ultimately lessens the quality of life present within this particular population, eliminating an essential component of daily routine (Schiavolin et al. as cited in Bishop & Rumrill, 2015).
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Framework for and Ideal Reentry Employment Program to Reduce Recidivism
Over 600,000 inmates are released each year, with over two-thirds of them being arrested again in the first three years of their release and almost four out of five of them being rearrested within the first five years of release (Durose et al., 2014; “Roadmap to Reentry,” 2017). In an age of mass-incarceration and high numbers of people being released from prison coupled with high percentages of formerly incarcerated people becoming repeat-offenders, it is important to discover how to stop this trend – how to help prisoners reenter society and abandon their old ways. While many aspects affect an individual’s reintegration into society, employment plays a crucial role. Therefore, having effective measures in place to aid inmates in getting jobs is crucial. The best employment-related programs to help people avoid recidivism would first and foremost make use of strong personal relationships and experienced employment services and that provide long-term support. Some additional services would also be ideal.Employment programs during reentry are important in helping formerly incarcerated people reintegrate into society and avoid recidivism. Employment aids in reentry for several reasons, including creating structure in a former inmate’s day, encouraging social interaction, and boosting self-esteem. It also provides income for a person to provide for himself and his family, which lessens the likelihood of crime (Carter 19).
Several studies support the idea that employment reduces recidivism. For example, Rossman and Roman found a correlation between reduced recidivism and working full-time (95). A study by Tripodi et al. found that employment was not statistically significant in reducing recidivism, but there was a significant correlation between having employment and spending a greater amount of time crime-free (713-714). Finally, Berg and Huebner’s study indicated that employment reduced recidivism and that if employed formerly incarcerated people were reconvicted, it took longer for them to commit another crime than it did for those that were unemployed (397). These results provide the reasoning behind the idea that helping formerly incarcerated people find employment upon release may play a big role in avoiding recidivism.Perhaps, one of the most important aspects of an employment program in reentry is good relationships and frequent contact between the former inmates and the people working with them in their process of reintegration. A study by Berg and Huebner support the case for relationships with a study that looks at the relationships between family ties, employment, and recidivism. They found that good relationships with relatives and significant others correlate with higher levels of employment and lower crime rates and rates of recidivism. In fact, former inmates with good ties to relatives had a higher employment rate and lower recidivism rate, regardless of their employment history before prison. Berg and Huebner proposed that the outcomes may be because relatives can connect formerly incarcerated people to jobs and provide motivation to find and maintain employment (398-401).
Because relationships with relatives appear to be so helpful in increased employment rates and reduced recidivism, family therapy might be a good addition to some formerly incarcerated people’s reentry programs.Unfortunately, not everyone being released from prison has such family ties. Some people have bad relationships with their relatives, and some people coming out of prison may not have any relationships with relatives. In this instance, it is especially important that the service providers working for the employment program work closely with their clients and aim to provide the motivation and guidance that family members may have provided. In Rossman and Roman’s study analyzing the Opportunity to Succeed (OPTS) program and comparing it to formerly incarcerated people working with parole officers, they found that OPTS is largely effective because of the emphasis put on the relationship between the case manager and the client. There was a positive correlation between frequent interaction with case managers and obtaining full-time jobs, and clients were more motivated to find and keep their jobs when their case managers were encouraging and followed up with them (Rossman and Roman 96). Bushway and Apel made similarly promising findings for people that lack strong family ties. They found that an intensive employment program showed no difference in the employment outcomes but that the clients did have a significantly reduced recidivism rate. Their reasoning was that the former inmates’ caseworkers’ support was what led to the reduction in recidivism (Bushway and Apel 25-26).
Therefore, if someone does not have good relationships with relatives, or has no relatives at all, upon release from prison, the service providers of a reentry program have the potential to be able to fill that role. Regardless of whether family ties are present, good relationships with the service providers are still important because it is better for a formerly incarcerated person to have too much support rather than too little. Additionally, the service providers would likely have more experience finding employment for their clients than the clients’ relatives would.Not only should service providers have good relationships with their clients by way of frequent communication and providing encouragement and motivation, but they also must provide this support on a long-term basis. One reason for this is to help former inmates maintain their initial motivation. Tripodi et al. found that employment did not reduce recidivism but at least increased the amount of time that someone stayed out of prison. He explained that employment may have had a stronger correlation with staying out of prison for a longer amount of time than with staying out of prison all together because desistance from crime is a process rather than a destination. Former inmates may be more motivated when first released from prison, and that motivation wears off over time. Tripodi et al. proposed that having a job possibly makes that motivation last longer (714-715).
Therefore, it is imperative that service providers continue to work with and motivate their clients. Working with a therapist may also help clients maintain their initial motivation or get it back when they lose it. Although the best therapeutic practices for this may be out of the scope of this paper, Tripodi et al., mentions two possibilities: motivational interviewing, which aims to develop motivation, and solution-focused brief therapy, which deals with setting goals and using one’s strengths to reach them (717). Ramakers et al.’s study also suggests that long-term support is important, but his indicates so because his findings suggest that recidivism does not depend on whether someone has a job, but rather depends on the type of job. For hourly employees in particular, job retention was an indicator of a lower likelihood of recidivism. Hourly employees who held their jobs for at least until the six-month follow up were significantly less likely to recidivate than those that did not (Ramakers et al. 1811). Ramakers et al.’s study did not look beyond six months, but Tripodi et al.’s indicates that long-term support should last for at least five years. This is because for employed formerly incarcerated people who recidivated, they ranged from 9 months to 60 months crime-free, and 60 months is five years (Tripodi et al. 713). Based on these studies, it is important that former inmates maintain their post-release employment, and employment reentry programs should help them achieve that goal.Employment programs during reentry are more helpful when they work with employment services that have experience placing formerly incarcerated people into jobs.
Case managers of OPTS said that it was generally easy to place clients into jobs even with their criminal histories because OPTS and/or their outside providers had previous contact with employers and had experience finding jobs for former inmates (Rossman and Roman 89). Studies involving programs that do not have the same connections with companies say otherwise. Bushway and Apel, for instance, found that employment programs did not increase the likelihood of having a job a few years later. They argued that one of the reasons that trying to place clients in job positions does not work is because their criminal history makes it hard to do so (Bushway and Apel 27). The analysis of OPTS, however, did find that people were more likely to be employed (Rossman and Roman 90). Since OPTS uses service providers with connections and experience, these outcomes highlight the fact that having connections and experience are important assets of employment services in reentry.There are many additional services that would also be of great help in reintegrating inmates. These include transportation, providing work clothes, and job preparation. In Rossman and Roman’s study on the OPTS program, they found that transportation was, overall, the biggest employment barrier for both OPTS clients and parolees not associated with the OPTS program. The specific issues they looked at included not having a car for work-related emergencies, having to pay a lot of money for car repairs, trouble getting a driver’s license, and public transportation problems.
As many as almost 40% of OPTS clients reported struggling with obtaining a car, and just over 40% of the parolees reported having problems getting a driver’s license. These were the highest percentages reported by either the experimental group (OPTS clients) or the control group (the parolees) for any of the aforementioned transportation-related employment barriers (Rossman and Roman 86-87). Sometimes clients did not have personal transportation, and sometimes public transportation did not link parts of the community that needed to be linked for clients to have certain jobs (Rossman and Roman 88). The location of public transportation may be hard to overcome, but clients should certainly be aided in understanding how the system works in case it is a good option for them.Having business attire for job interviews and work was also one of the more common problems, with 20.5% of OPTS clients and 18.3% of parolees reporting facing that barrier (Rossman and Roman 87). Employment programs could look to places like Goodwill to provide the clients with work clothes at a cheaper cost, or they could also start initiatives to collect used or new clothingJob preparation and assistance searching for jobs are also worthy of inclusion in an employment program. Among identifying job openings, filling out applications, and interview skills, identifying openings posed the most challenges to both groups with 18.8% of the experimental group and 16.1% of the control group struggling with it (Rossman and Roman 87). Working on these skills should be part of a former inmate’s meetings with his or her service providers.
Understandably, employment programs may not be able to offer all of these recommended additional services; however, they should strive to cover as many as they can. Transportation appears to be more important than the clothing, since it was an impediment faced by more people (Rossman and Roman 87). Additionally, if potential employees cannot make it to their job or job interview, then it does not matter if they have suitable clothing. The job preparation skills should also be included as needed because they would most likely be less costly than providing transportation and clothing.Even though some studies disagree with the idea that employment programs make a difference in former inmates’ employment and recidivism, they should still receive investment and attention. First of all, many studies, do show that they help. However, for those studies that disagree, some still suggest that such programs show promise for reducing recidivism. For example, Tripodi et al.’s study showed that employment programs may not significantly reduce recidivism but do significantly increase the amount of time the formerly incarcerated people go before they recidivate. As this study indicates, employment may help formerly incarcerated people get further along in the process of desistence (Tripodi et al. 718).
Additionally, Bush and Apel indicated that employment programs may have advantages that people do not usually think about. Their idea was related to the signaling theory of labor economics. This is when a potential employee acquires an observable attribute that communicates something he believes about himself. For example, job applicants may know that they are intelligent, hard-working, and productive, but this cannot be seen by the employer without a signal. In this case, a college degree, especially from a credible and prestigious institute, would act as the signal to the employer that the applicant is the things that he believes he is. In the case of employment programs during reentry, voluntarily going through a program could act as a signal to an employer that a formerly incarcerated person is dedicated and has desisted from crime (Bushway and Apel 30-38). This idea suggests that, in some cases, employment programs should be voluntary in order to give formerly incarcerated people the chance to show employers that they are good job candidates. It also suggests that employment programs warrant investment and further investigation even though some studies say they do not work.In conclusion, relationships are very important in finding and maintaining employment during reentry. Additionally, formerly incarcerated people should receive long-term support, and there are also many extra services that would be helpful. Every aspect of an employment reentry program should be designed to work together to help the clients find and keep their jobs, as employment can play a big role in desistance from crime.
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Framework for and Ideal Reentry Employment Program to Reduce Recidivism. (2019, Feb 15).
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Overview of Supported Employment
- Populations that benefit from supported employment
- Expected outcomes of supported employment
- Team members of supported employment
- Literature review
- Occupational therapy’s role in supported employment
- Areas of impairment that supported employment addresses
- PEO Model and supported employment
- Evaluation tools that can complement supported employment
- Occupational therapy intervention goals
Supported employment is a model of vocational rehabilitation that helps consumers with developmental disabilities, serious mental illness, or other significant disabilities get placed in jobs that they want to pursue (Florida Department of Education, Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, 2018; Moll, Huff, & Detwiler, 2003 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; SAMHSA, 2009). This model also gives consumers the supports, accommodations, and training needed to enable their success in the workplace (Moll, Huff, & Detwiler, 2003 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011). Rather than using a “train and then place” approach from the traditional vocational rehabilitation model, a “place and then train” approach is used instead, also known as the Individual Placement and Support (IPS) model within supported employment (Becker & Drake, 1993 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; Drake & Becker, 1996 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; Bond et al., 2001 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; Bond, 2004 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011). The IPS model was created to increase treatment outcomes for consumers as well as helping them acquire competitive employment like people who do not have disabilities (Becker & Drake, 1993 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; Drake & Becker, 1996 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; SAMHSA, 2009). Supported employment in its entirety shows consumers that regardless of their condition, it is possible for them to find a job that best fits their strengths and experiences instead of trying to become “perfect workers” (SAMHSA, 2009).
Populations that benefit from supported employment
Although supported employment helps consumers with developmental disabilities and other significant disabilities, consumers with serious mental illness are an important population in supported employment (Florida Department of Education, Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, 2018; U.S. Department of Labor, 1993 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011). One example of a serious mental illness is schizophrenia, as well as other psychotic disorders (Brown & Stoffel, 2011). Consumers with schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders may show one or more of these abnormalities, which include “delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking and speech, grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behavior (including catatonia), and negative symptoms” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). These abnormalities can affect how a consumer is in the workplace. Negative symptoms can decrease a consumer’s performance, which are more prevalent in consumers with schizophrenia (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Consumers that exhibit these negative symptoms may not speak as much, express emotions, have motivation to initiate purpose activities, experience pleasure, show interest in social interactions, or have opportunities for social interactions (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). As for developmental disabilities, these would include neurodevelopmental disorders that “produce impairments of personal, social, academic, or occupational functioning” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). These impairments can widely vary “from very specific limitations of learning or control of executive functions to global impairments of social skills or intelligence” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). No matter what disability a consumer may have, supported employment will help that consumer find a job.
Expected outcomes of supported employment
The goal of supported employment is to help consumers find jobs in typical settings in the community outside of segregated workshops and also having the supports needed to be successful at work (U.S. Department of Labor, 1993 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; SAMHSA, 2009). Examples of such supports include “job coaches, arranged transportation, and assistive technology” (U.S. Department of Labor, 1993 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011). It allows for consumers to take part in work settings with people who do not have disabilities and earn competitive wages (SAMHSA, 2009). There are a several components that make up supported employment programs. One component consists of integrating the consumer’s mental health services with the employment assistance services and having them work in synchrony with each other (Bond & Jones, 2005 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; SAMHSA, 2009). A second component involves allowing a consumer to use supported employment services based off of their desire to work and not on their illness or employment history (Bond & Jones, 2005 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; SAMHSA, 2009). A third component focuses finding a competitive job that fits the consumer’s preferences, which is the goal (Bond & Jones, 2005 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; SAMHSA, 2009). A fourth component is comprised of starting the job search as soon as a consumer decides to enter the supported employment program (Bond & Jones, 2005 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; SAMHSA, 2009). A fifth component includes unlimited customized support for the consumer whenever they need it (Bond & Jones, 2005 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; SAMHSA, 2009). Lastly, a sixth component incorporates Social Security benefits counseling, which helps the consumer take care of their Social Security, health insurance, and other government benefits efficiently (Bond & Jones, 2005 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011; SAMHSA, 2009). This counseling will further help the consumer’s entry into the workforce, as well as helping them keeping their job (Bond & Jones, 2005 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011). Therefore, supported employment helps consumers get competitive jobs and makes the transition into those jobs go more smoothly.
Team members of supported employment
In order to make supported employment work effectively, a team is needed to help with different responsibilities. The supported employment staff is made up of supported employment leaders, employment specialists, benefits specialists, and mental health practitioners (SAMHSA, 2009). Supported employment leaders supervise employment specialists and serve as the link to other coordinators within a mental health agency (SAMHSA, 2009). Employment specialists are the servicers of supported employment by assisting consumers with acquiring and upholding jobs that go along with their vocational goals and recovery (SAMHSA, 2009). Benefits specialists are the go-to people when a consumer needs complete information about benefits and work incentives (SAMHSA, 2009). They help consumers who want to go to work by looking over their benefits and informing them about how work will affect them (SAMHSA, 2009). As the consumers work more and make more money, benefits specialists can provide individualized benefits planning to help them handle their benefits and health care coverage (SAMHSA, 2009). Mental health practitioners uphold vocational goals of consumers as well as talk about clinical and rehabilitation concerns that pertain to work (SAMHSA, 2009). These concerns can include side effects from medication, ongoing symptoms such as hallucinations, cognitive problems, and other rehabilitation needs that will facilitate better work performance, such as social skills training to improve a consumer’s ability to socialize (SAMHSA, 2009). Once a consumer is in the competitive workforce, supervisors and coworkers can also provide natural support to them as they transition into the job, which can help them retain a job for a longer period of time (McGurk, Mueser, & Pascaris, 2005 as cited in Brown & Stoffel, 2011).
Literature review
Kirsh, B. (2016). Client, contextual and program elements influencing supported employment: A literature review. Community Mental Health Journal, 52, 809-820.
Here is a literature review that focused on issues within supported employment (SE) that have not been the main points of research for this model. There were six research questions that were asked. They were as follows: 1) What impact do labor market trends have on the effectiveness of SE? 2) How lasting are the effects of SE and what factors influence longevity of SE? 3) What levels and types of employment are targeted by SE? 4) What are the characteristics of people who benefit most from SE? 5) What is the role of peer support in SE? 6) What are the barriers to effective SE implementation? A literature search that looked at peer-reviewed articles that ranged from 1988 to 2010 was performed using major databases. Two keywords that were used were “supported employment” and “individual placement and support.” Articles that were included in the study were about supported employment with people with mental illnesses or comorbid addiction and mental disorders. Articles that were not included were about fidelity measurements or were simply program descriptions without any outcomes. For each article reviewed, a template cover sheet was created as data was extracted. A cover sheet had the type of study, purpose, design, context, and participants of each study. There were also headings for each research question. Once all of the information was collected from the articles, a separate document was made for each research question, and the data pertaining to that question was put into that document. The information on these documents were then summarized to look at the complete answer for each question being asked.
Results revealed that labor market trends are inversely related to SE efficacy rates. When there are high unemployment rates, there are lower employment rates for SE. On the other hand, a healthy economy leads to higher rates of job acquisition and longer lengths of employment. Participants in SE programs worked longer than other groups across all studies. The presence of skills training, cognitive training, funding models, and job matching positively contribute to the long-lasting effects of supported employment. Participants of SE programs had jobs in competitive settings that were the same as coworkers without mental illnesses. The jobs were at least minimum wage, either part-time or full-time, and mostly entry-level positions that were involved in retail, service, general laborer, and clerical work. They did not require technical skills, advanced education, or prior work experience.
In regards to characteristics within each participant, positive personal attitudes and beliefs, higher education (at least a high school degree), prior employment history, higher cognitive and mental health characteristics, supportive families, and association with income support increased their ability to find and keep jobs. Males tended to find and get jobs more than females due to the physical nature of some jobs. Age had mixed results with participants under the age of thirty-five having better employment outcomes or older participants between the ages of forty and forty-nine having longer job tenure. Demographics did not significantly determine job tenure. The presence of peer support helped participants in SE programs feel like they were not alone in their pursuit for competitive jobs. It was helpful for participants to talk to people in similar situations, and it pushed them to continue with the job search. There were several barriers found that negatively affected supported employment.
Negative attitudes toward participants and the lack of skills, training, and knowledge of SE staff led to decreased effectiveness of SE. There were leadership challenges that affected the productivity of SE programs. Screening and referral challenges were presented through some teams only wanting to help participants who were more likely to perform well in the workforce and some mental health professionals seeing work as a stressor for participants rather than a benefit. Then there was the fear of losing health insurance and other benefits based on disability policies and social security programs. Stigma towards people with mental illness continues to be prevalent, which can affect a participant’s ability to get a competitive job.
From this article, it was found that supported employment can be very effective for people with serious mental illness. On the other hand, the effectiveness of this model also depends on many factors. For instance, supported employment is more successful when a person has the interest and motivation to find a job. Although supported employment programs do not discriminate against people based on their mental illness or prior work experience, it looks like people who are in supported employment programs have a higher probability of getting a job if they have previous employment history, are higher functioning and have a handle on their symptoms, and participate in peer support groups. There are also outside influences that can change the effectiveness of supported employment, such as labor market trends, an inefficient supported education staff, and discrimination against people who are participating in supported employment. With all of this information in mind, it looks like the research shows that the effectiveness of supported employment depends on factors within the participants of a supported employment program and factors outside of the participants’ control.
Occupational therapy’s role in supported employment
With supported employment being dependent on the preferences of the consumer, it is not difficult to incorporate its principles in the client-centered profession of occupational therapy. Occupational therapy can complement supported employment by finding ways for a consumer to successfully participate in their desired activities and tasks in the workplace. Occupational therapists can advocate for the right of consumers to pursue competitive jobs. Along with this, they can advocate for consumers to get special transportation so they can get to work safely and on time. If consumers are placed in a job that they are interested in but are having difficulties with some job tasks, occupational therapists can do activity analysis and find ways to adapt the environment or job task or introduce the use of assistive technology to complete job tasks.
Besides job tasks, occupational therapists can help with skills training that will help further support consumers’ success in the workplace. For example, if a consumer is having difficulties engaging in social interactions with supervisors, coworkers, or customers if applicable, occupational therapists can organize a social skills training for them. If a consumer is having difficulties expressing their wants and needs in the workplace, occupational therapists can organize an assertion skills training. Other examples of skills training can pertain to organization or time management to help consumers perform efficiently and in a timely manner at work. As a consumer starts making more money, money management techniques can also be taught by an occupational therapist, perhaps in collaboration with the benefits specialists. Together with the supported employment staff, occupational therapists can help uphold the principles of supported employment.
Areas of impairment that supported employment addresses
The main impairment that supported employment addresses is work. It helps consumers identify their interests that can help them pinpoint potential jobs and then look into those jobs. Employment specialists can then help consumers find and get jobs. Once consumers get jobs, then the supported employment staff can help improve their job performance as necessary through skills training, occupation modifications, environmental modifications, and introducing assistive technology when needed. A second impairment that is addressed is driving and community mobility. Special transportation may need to be arranged in order for a consumer to get to work safely and on time, as well as get picked up when the work day is finished. A third impairment that is addressed is financial management. Thanks to the presence of a benefits specialist on the supported employment staff, consumers will have knowledge of their benefits and healthcare coverage. They will also learn money management techniques as they earn more money. Addressing these impairments will help a consumer be successful in their everyday life.
PEO Model and supported employment
To relate supported employment back to occupational therapy, an occupational therapy model that will best complement supported employment is the PEO model. The PEO model focuses on the dynamic relationships that occur when people participate in their occupations in different environments over time (Brown & Stoffel, 2011). These relationships between people, occupations, and environments can either positively or negatively affect each other, and changes within any part affects the other parts on various levels (Brown & Stoffel, 2011). Analyses are performed on the relationships between the person and the occupation, the occupation and the environment, and the person and the environment during a specific point of time and space (Brown & Stoffel, 2011). Depending on the circumstances, the amount of each part can vary, and occupational performance can look different every time (Brown & Stoffel, 2011). The overlapping of all three components and the resulting performance from it is the person’s occupational performance (CAOT, 1997).
This occupational therapy model works well with supported employment when a consumer gets a job. In order to see if a consumer needs skills training, job task modifications, or assistive technology, the relationship between the consumer and the occupation can be analyzed to see if the interaction between them promotes success at work. The relationship between a consumer and the environment can be looked at to see if there are any outside influences that are affecting the consumer while at work. Furthermore, the relationship between an occupation and the environment can be examined to see if there are outside influences affecting how an occupation at work is performed or if an occupation is affecting the environment. Looking at the interactions between a consumer, their occupation, and their environment through this model can help adjust themselves, the job task, or the workplace accordingly so the consumer can increase their occupational performance.
Evaluation tools that can complement supported employment
Assessment tools that can be used to evaluate consumers and complement supported employment are client interview, interest checklist, and activity analysis. Through a client interview, the consumer can express their interests in their own words, and from there, potential jobs can be determined. If it is difficult for a consumer to think of what they are interested in, an interest checklist with a list of different activities can be used to specifically pinpoint interests. Once a consumer is in the workplace, activity analysis can be performed. The consumer can be observed doing a job task and analyze their performance. If there are problems, then modifications can be incorporated, such as changing the job task or the environment or introducing assistive technology in order to increase the consumer’s job performance. Occupational therapy can help assess consumers before or after they obtain a competitive job.
Occupational therapy intervention goals
There are five general intervention goals that can be worked on based on the supported employment model. The first goal is for the consumer to identify interests to help with their job search. For a consumer who participated in social skills training, the second goal is for the consumer to interact with supervisors, coworkers and customers using skills obtained from the social skills training. If a consumer needs to use assistive technology, the third goal is for the consumer to successfully complete job tasks while using assistive technology. For a consumer who needs to work on time management, the fourth goal is for the consumer to manage their time effectively by getting to work on time, completing job tasks during the time allotted, and leaving work at their designated time. As for a consumer who received organization skills training, the fifth goal is for the consumer to incorporate techniques to help them stay organized in the workplace.
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Overview of Supported Employment. (2019, Feb 15).
Retrieved November 4, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/8/
Employment Status Report
Goals and Philosophy
There are a few short-term goals that can be completed within these last few months of the year. One of them is to keep my work schedule and school schedule in balance. So, time management is a very important goal for the next two months of the school semester. Another short-term goal is making sure to pass these two classes this semester with a C+ or above. However, working harder towards a much higher grade would be more satisfying this semester. Then one long-term goal is being professionally skilled in different art mediums like watercolor and paint, pastel, charcoal, oil paint, and so on. For the most apart using graphic pencils or mechanic pencils and different types of black ink pens are what you would call traditional old-school tools. Which is a good place to start with the old traditional ways to advance to different areas of media. Finally, another one is graduating from Academy of Art University in the next year or so.
A lot of people have their own ideas of what art can be but to me, art is something that you can make with your own two hands. It is something that you can glance at for a long time and just be able to admire it for its own unique beauty and charm. Them being able to relate and visible feel something from that art is what makes art because you want people to be able to get something for it and understand what the artist was putting into it. One of the things to do to get inspired is just using whatever you see that draws you to it has a muse for an idea of your next art piece. A simple idea that can be inspired by a flower, book, character, tv show, and so on. Then turn it into a completed drawing which is very satisfying throughout the whole process.
Marketplace
There are several reasons for hiring an illustrator and that depends on what the person is asking for. For example, Marvel Studios is looking for a Senior Illustrator and the job description is of a small team of illustrators and designers working together to deliver high-quality concept art for the heroes, villains and key moments of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The competition is many individuals that meet the needed requirements and are unique candidates themselves. Moreover, the salary an illustrator can earn based on the year 2016 is from $21,279 to $92,861. There are a few things that can beat the competition which leads to earning a bachelor's degree and gaining the advantage of mastering your drawing skills to place in your portfolio.
Skills and Tools
For one of them is to be skilled in different areas of mediums for an illustrator. Now the term for a medium is the equipment artist use to create their artwork. There are traditional tools used like chalk, charcoal, acrylic and oil paint, oil and soft pastel, pen and ink, and watercolor. The ones listed are the first to be mastered in and then once skilled in each category. There are more media than the ones listed, and each is unique to use in their own ways and usually takes time to be skilled at one to use in your own style. From before attending Academy of Art University, I have only ever used pen and ink. Even though there aren't many experiences with having a job for illustration but there are experiences from having jobs that require you to have good communication skills, good work ethics, quick learner, multitasker, and the most important is being responsible for yourself. Has a developing illustrator there are a few things you would need to be an excellent illustrator and that is good communication skills, good listener, problem solver, and obviously an artist.
Networking
The society of illustrations is a group that shares their designs and work to give back, so they can give back to the community. To join there is only a fee of $35 if you are a student and if not, there are other categories that will match you. The benefits of being a member is the following: Year-round free admission to the Museum (with up to 4 guests), 10% discount in Museum Shop and The 128 Bar & Bistro, Discounts on lectures, workshops, film screenings, and special event tickets, Eligible to use the library (by appointment only, based on availability), Discount on The Illustrators Annual book, Invitations to exclusive Members-Only events, and Reciprocal membership with the Salmagundi Art Club and Mount Vernon Hotel Museum (SOI). Since the internet plays an important role in the illustrator industry, networking is now easier than ever now. There are great sites that can connect illustrators to many connections. They can showcase their work on multiple websites like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and many others.
The Future
In the future working for Marvel Studios is a long-term goal. From a young age, people have grown up with these characters or read about them and then seen them come so far from that point. Being able to work with a team of people that have the same passion to be able to develop their character design is a great achievement to someone who has admired these characters their entire childhood. Has an illustrator you must make your work the best and strive for the best, so creating a strong, diverse portfolio is the right way to market your chosen audience. There are many things an illustrator must overcome themselves and it's a journey that they must go for them to become the illustrator they want.
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Employment Status Report. (2019, Feb 15).
Retrieved November 4, 2025 , from
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Vocational Education for Vulnerable Young People Employment and Empowerment in the Cambodian Urban
This research methodology is precise and promised on purposive in sampling (Yin 2003) or what has approach, an equal insight into the phenomenon, and analytic generalisation and this better theorising to the issue of and employment in urban combodia will be provided by this methodology which will help to select some cases which are responsible of the complex characteristics of NGOs in combodia by given only a flavour of generalisability but also a higher degree of certainty in theorising. In this case a table was used with 6 variables, one for registration, size, location, training, knowledge and skill portfolio, it also analyses youth involvement in technical, moral and cultural, and linkage to employment, these formation was made to help in capturing the representativeness of dynamics of NGOs capturing in combodia whose where targeted groups involve in vulnerable youth aged 14-30 and whose VE service is a response to labour market need. Another approach was also adopted in answering the above question whose was based on participatory observation, documentary collection and semi structured interview, after which an empirical model of an integrated pedagogy of vocational education was built up accordingly, these further provided a theoretical verification of comparing it with what VE graduates perceive as constituting the integrated VE pedagogy in the follow up survey. To determine the number of students per year and their location who do enrolled them self into VE education training, and knowledge and skills portfolio linkage to employment, a number of data was collected from the intervened NGOs in combodia, after which a 3 metric table where designed with the nine NGOs investigated. The table provided the empirical data needed. These finding leaded to a pedagogical concept of at lest a triangulated by cross-checking views as follow
- Among differences interviewers (of leading managers, administrative staff, teachers and students)
- Among different NGOs
- Among different data collection techniques, and even.
- Across two different periods of field work.
All these processes lead to two approaches of case background and a follow-up evaluation where the researcher has to adopt semi-structured interviews in the first fieldwork period. Which shows a statistical terms, the sample size equivalent to the population used in the structured interview. And the mini questionnaire. To further supplement and explain the findings derived from the mini questionnaire, qualitative evidence was gathered by direct observation of the original graduate students’ performance at their place of work by doing so, the importance of pedagogical constituents from the service users perspective could be further identified and scrutinised.
The three-tier approach to empowering young people shows that learning formally was neither job-oriented nor motivational. Students also imply that a responsible, cooperative and inclusive environment which discriminates against no-one in the process is most effective for nurturing young people’s performance and personalities. In creating such an environment, a six pedagogical constituents at separately embedded in the three different physical learning environment settings was found as follow
- Relationship (change to rust, love, openness)
- Rehabilitation (self-expression, self-esteem and confidence)
- Know-how acquisition (teamwork, hands-on, practical, participation)
- Moral involvement (valves, model, reasoning, responsibility and social work)
- Incentive provision (earn-while you-lean against opportunity cost, for motivation)
- Consultative provision (grow while you work. Problem solving and critical thinking in a process of productivity and socialization)
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Vocational Education for Vulnerable Young People Employment and Empowerment in the Cambodian Urban. (2019, Feb 15).
Retrieved November 4, 2025 , from
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The Effect of Global Value Chains on Employment in China’s Manufacturing Sector
What is the impact of Global Value Chains on manufacturing sector jobs in China? The 21st century has been characterized largely by the adoption of trade-led development strategies. The gains of globalization and trade openness are gradually phasing out rigid protectionism. Today, capital can be invested anywhere, using labor and raw materials outsourced from anywhere, and the product be marketed anywhere as long as that ‘anywhere’ has economic value. As a result of the growing economic integration across the globe, it has become common practice for countries to export or import intermediate products for advanced processing. The increasing diffusion of technology and labor mobility has further given international trade the new dimension of joint production. Recent research shows that the fragmentation in production processes has been facilitated by the continued decline of transport costs and the emerging web of value addition processes (Timmer et al, 2015). Global Value Chains have thus become the center piece of production and trade policy. Today, imports are not merely finished products or consumables; they form a key part of domestic production in the importing state.
Global Value Chains (GVCs) are conceptually not a new phenomenon. Yet it’s only recently that scholars have started paying attention to the impact global value chains have on employment. The creation of a new world input-output database (WIOD) and its public inception in 2012 enabled the analysis of country participation in GVCs. The database is yet to include developing countries. As a result of it being relatively recent, there has not been much focus on the subject area in general. Consequently, there are very few country studies on the effect of GVCs on employment patterns.
Recent research work presents mixed findings on how foreign value added in production impacts on employment. In India, Banga (2015) finds that the domestic value added in exports had no statistically significant impact on imports. He also surprisingly finds that Foreign Value Added in exports has negative impact on growth of employment. His conclusion is that GVCs had a negative net effect on employment in India. Timmer, Los and Vries (2015) used the global input-output methodology to analyze the effect of foreign demand on employment in China for the years between 1995 and 2001. They also found that increase on foreign demand had no effect on employment. For the years between 2001 and 2006, they find that foreign demand had led to an increase in jobs.
The creation of WIOD database presents an opportunity to pursue this subject further. This proposed analysis differs with the study conducted by Timmer et al in two ways. One, the study restrains the analysis to capture impact of GVC participation on employment in the manufacturing sector. Secondly, the study uses more comprehensive data from WIOD for the years between 2000 and 2014. The increase in sample observations is likely to impact on the findings.
Theory: Global Value Chain theory
Model TEi = ?0 + ?1 FoVAi + ?2 Tariffi + ?3GVAi + ?4LCompi+ dManfi +U Data Source1: WIOD Socio-Economic Accounts LComp- Labor Compensation (Wage) GVA- Gross Value Added TE-Total Persons Engaged (Employment) FoVA-Foreign Value Added (GVC MEASURE) Data Source2: WBG - WITS, UNCTADTRAINS, World Trade Organization Tariffs- Weighed annual average tariff values
Cite this page
The Effect of Global Value Chains on Employment in China’s Manufacturing Sector. (2019, Feb 15).
Retrieved November 4, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/8/
