Month: February 2019
Monsanto and Genetically Modified Organism
Monsanto’s proposal towards the investment of the production of GMO crops for public schools is not only a good idea towards the promotion of health to the students of Georgia but it is economically generous also. Although GMO crops are controversial when it comes to health in the long term, there are no sources of hardcore evidence that can support the argument that GMO’s are bad for humans. Going through with this proposal would be beneficial to the welfare of children, and would not create a major economic impact.
When it comes to the economics of this proposal, and when looking at comparisons, this proposal is cheap. Georgia is paying 9.8 billion towards education during the year of 2019(Suggs). Monsanto asked for an investment of $500,000, which is not even close to 1% of the total investments. Monsanto also offered to invest in 500,000 more making the total investment $1 million. One of Monsanto’s arguments on why this is economically good is that it can provide jobs for those who need it. Monsanto also mentions that a 2008-2012 study has found that 23-25% of the state of Georgia is considered food insecure, meaning children under the age of 18 may not be able to afford healthy foods(KCDC). A more recent study from 2017 showed that food insecurity for children in Georgia is 20%, showing a decrease(Georgia Mountain Food Bank). However, these stats still aren’t good. Monsanto genetically modifying these crops to increase their abundance will not only decrease the prices but it would also increase the amount of fruits and vegetables provided to schools in need of a healthier meal plan for those on free or reduced lunch. Monsanto also mentioned that they would focus on schools with higher rates of free or reduced lunch.
When it comes to the health impacts of this proposal it gets a little confusing. We know fruits and vegetable are good for us, but are GMO’s? In Monsanto’s proposal they mentioned that 35% of children and teens aged 10-17 in 2011-2012 are considered obese in Georgia(KCDC). Incorporation of more plant based foods in the diets of these children and teens could decrease these rates. The big question out of the health side of things however is whether or not GMO’s are healthy too. From the year 1997 to 2011 there has been a 2% increase in food allergies and people put GMO’s at fault for this(Jackson). However, no real proof has been found to show that GMO’s are linked to allergies(Charles). People also claim that GMO’s can cause anti-biotic resistance, but there has been no proof of this claim. Lastly, many people think cancer is linked to GMO’s, but no research has proven this claim either(Food and Chemical Toxicology). Although many are suspicious of the impacts of GMO’s, with no evidence provided, the pro’s out weight the cons when it comes to health. Fruits and vegetables may improve the health of these children and that should be a big enough statement to be persuasive to the Georgia legislation.
Going through with this proposal would prove to be more beneficial than not in the future. When it comes to Monsanto’s statements, one thing they could have done to improve their argument is to give a more recent examples of data. For example, 2012 is their most recent data and that was 6 years ago. It would have strengthened their argument to use data from a much more recent time period because using the present time can almost create a sense of urgency. But it’s easy to say that data has most likely not changed drastically over 6 years either. Overall the data they provided was mainly factual and helped improve their proposal with the exception of the time period. The Georgia legislature should move forward with this.
Bibliography
“Create Your Custom Report.” KIDS COUNT Data Center: A Project of the Annie E. Casey Foundation, www.datacenter.kidscount.org/.
“Hunger and Poverty in Georgia.” Georgia Mountain Food Bank, www.gamountainfoodbank.org/georgia-stats/.
“Introduction to Food Toxicology.” Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 31, no. 12, 1993, p. 1038., doi:10.1016/0278-6915(93)90020-y.
Suggs, Claire. “Overview: 2019 Fiscal Year Budget for K-12 Education.” Georgia Budget and Policy Institute, 6 Feb. 2018, gbpi.org/2018/overview-2019-georgia-budget-k-12-education/.
Kristen D. Jackson. “Trends in Allergic Conditions Among Children: United States, 1997–2011.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2 May 2013, www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db121.htm.
Xu, Charles. “Nothing to Sneeze at: the Allergenicity of GMOs.” Science in the News, 15 Aug. 2015, sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/allergies-and-gmos/.
Cite this page
Monsanto and Genetically Modified Organism. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Website Analysis Paper Autism
Autism is among the common mental disorders that are encountered at the global scale. (approximately 60 cases per 10,000 people) (Brentani et al., 2013). This means that the risk of an individual born with Autism can be considerably high, making it unreasonable to ignore this health issue. In general, autism is associated with the violation of the development of the brain, with the person experiencing problems when trying to interact and communicate with others throughout their life as this disorder cannot be treated (Bauer, 2016). As a result, it becomes much more difficult for a patient to turn into a productive member of the society when growing up; meaning that the treatment must focus on the improvement of the quality of their life and functional independence. In turn, the possession of knowledge through the action of care, becomes quite important for both family members, and healthcare professionals.
The specific needs of patients diagnosed with autism can present numerous challenges to caregivers. This fact has resulted in the emergence of numerous support groups that often interact with the target population through the Internet, namely websites. These include such resources like “Autism Society” and “Interacting with Autism”, with both having their strong and weak points. The positive sides of Autism Society include a wide range of topics that may be useful for caregivers (general information on autism, legal issues, family life, and many others), which make it adaptable. Moreover, it contains a section designed for the Spanish-speaking population, thus targeting a diverse population of the country (Autism Society, 2018). At the same time, the large volumes of text and the lack of pictures and graphs to supplement it can make the materials difficult to comprehend, or overwhelming; especially when the user does not have enough time to read them thoroughly. As a result, the usefulness of Autism Society for caregivers, especially the ones that are not proficient in medical sciences, can be questionable.
However, the other website, titled “Interacting with Autism” , utilizes a different approach to the supply of support, presenting most of the useful information in the form of videos, which makes it easier for caregivers to comprehend (Interacting with Autism, 2018). In this regard, it is more user-friendly than Autism Society. However, in comparison to the latter, the focus on video files can present problems for the people that do not speak English fluently since all the videos are presented in this language and do not contain subtitles.
Both websites are influenced by evidence-based practice to a certain extent. It is particularly noticeable in the case of Autism Society, which cooperates with organizations such as the National Institutes of Health and Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (Autism Society, 2018). This collaboration can potentially provide the website with the additional relevant information on the disorder that can be used to develop the most effective guidelines for caregivers of all types. Interacting with Autism contains the data on such methods of treatment which involves the available services of occupational therapy and applied behavior analysis. As a result, the recommendations it provides are backed by evidence and, therefore, remain viable.
At the same time, despite the high usefulness of the reviewed resources, it is possible to provide several recommendations for the improvement of their effectiveness from the perspective of individuals seeking support. For Autism Society, it is recommended to alter the text data with pictures, graphs, tables, and videos as it will improve its comprehensiveness and usefulness for a wide range of people. For Interacting with Autism, it is advisable to introduce the sections that target non-English speakers, as well as translate some of the most viewed videos to Spanish (or, at least, add Spanish transcriptions to those) to increase the potential audience of the website. By doing so, both reviewed support groups will be able to provide assistance to an increased number of caregivers, ultimately helping to improve the quality of life of numerous American citizens diagnosed with autism.
References
Autism Society (2018). Home. Retrieved from https://www.autism-society.org Bauer, L. R. (2016). Autism spectrum disorders: Five things you should know about autism treatment. Universal Journal of Psychology, 4(3), 139-141. Brentani, H., de Paula, C. S., Bordini, D., Rolim, D., Sato, F., Portolese, J., ... McCracken, J. T. (2013). Autism spectrum disorders: An overview on diagnosis and treatment. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 35, 62-72. Interacting with Autism (2018). Home. Retrieved from https://www.interactingwithautism.com
Cite this page
Website Analysis Paper Autism. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Autism in Society
Autism in adolescence starts as early as age two, and early signs will become more severe as children continue into elementary school. When a child goes to a psychiatrist, they will work on social development. These adolescence struggle when attempting to sympathize with others pain. For example, my brother has Asperger's and when I have a bone graph done on my hand, he could not stop touching my hand. He needed constant reminders to not touch and remind him of when he was hurt and tell him it feels similar in that aspect.
Adolescence with special needs have a hard picking up on social cues such as someone would look at you to stop talking, or be around the bush. You have to tell them exactly how you are feeling. Following the social aspect, the therapist will then work on aggression. When children who are on the spectrum have a hard time projecting how they are feeling they tend to get aggressive or angry.
Before children reach thirty months of age according to Kanner autistic children will struggle developmentally with language and showing how they feel, this will hurt their chances to form connections with children on the same age as well as other. They will typically have obsessions over particular aspects of life. My brother who is on the spectrum has an obsession with video games, in particular ones with fighting. However, part of his autism is also repeating the same motions so he will repeat his ‘ninja moves’ multiple times every hour.
A multitude of tests were done by Rutter in 1970 whose results showed a normal one and a half percent of the individuals in his study achieved average functioning of children in their own age group. Thirty-five percent had a good functioning, but the remaining amount were marked to have severe disabilities and were placed in mental institutions. Following these statistics, a number of psychologists followed in conducting their own studies all of which were found be correlating with their results. Studies were conducted providing evidence for children of the age four and younger without a disability learn better from their everyday environment.
As years progressed testing individuals on the autism spectrum continued to be the top priority of those in the medical field at Stanford University. They continued to experiment with how the children succeeded with doing daily activities on their own. This consists of items such as hygiene, followed by speech.
While this article states that studies conducted suggested people on the autism spectrum are less intellectual than average individuals. They only tested them on daily activities while out of their natural surroundings, which we have now known to be a bad thing. They do not adjust well in different environments until it becomes one of their new social norms. As far as language goes, it suggests they are less intelligent, which once again we now know children have trouble with social aspects. While pursuing a degree to become of Pediatric Psychiatrist I have come to learn that a significant amount of people on the spectrum have come to work for major government programs such as NASA.
Cite this page
Autism in Society. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Vaccinations and Autism
Dr. Julia A. McMillan, a noted professor with extensive background in pediatrics, who highlighted several key points in favor of thimerosal not being a causal agent of autism. She noted that the recommendation that thimerosal be eliminated from vaccines for infants was made as a precaution, knowing that mercury in large doses is a neurotoxin and--not because there was evidence that the mercury used in vaccines causes neurologic damage; vaccinations on the recommended schedule for children do not contain thimerosal with the exception of some flu vaccines (or contain only a trace amount that cannot be removed after the original manufacturing process); despite public thought, many vaccines, including measles-mumps-rubella, oral polio, and the conjugated pneumococcal, never contained thimerosal; the cause (or causes) of autism is unknown (2005). In reviewing the literature surrounding a causal relationship between vaccinations and autism, this writer encountered two barriers: very little evidence supporting a causal relationship between vaccinations and autism and a lack of recent research supporting or debunking the relationship between the two.
Even some of the research that may have appeared to be in favor of a causal relationship on first glance, provided inconclusive evidence to support this hypothesis or flat-out denied that vaccinations cause autism. Whereas this writer began this assignment fully invested in the idea that vaccinations play a definite role in causing autism, a level of uncertainty is now apparent due to the research cited in this report. With that being said, more research as well as consultation with professionals are needed to weigh the options and make an informed decision as it relates to consenting to childhood vaccinations. And while there may not be an all-out refusal of vaccinations, it may mean making an adjustment to the vaccination schedule where possible. To vaccinate or not to vaccinate; that is the question. In conclusion, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have indicated that vaccines have reduced preventable infectious diseases to an all-time low and now few people experience the devastating effects of measles, pertussis and other illnesses.
Many of these are childhood vaccines that have contributed to a significant reduction of vaccine-preventable diseases. Yet the public wonders whether, in the absence of outbreak, vaccinations may present more of a risk than the diseases they prevent. To have a balanced view, possible side effects have to be weighed against the expected benefits of vaccination in preventing the serious complications of disease. This sentiment can be seen in the conclusion made by press reports and public discussion: that “we’ll have an answer to the question of whether thimerosal is responsible for the increase in the incidence of autism among our children only by waiting to see what happens to that incidence now that vaccines for infants are free of thimerosal” ( ) - a very sobering but logical thought that may not offer a sense of satisfaction to the average person. What would help, as Parmet (2016) elaborates is for the American legal system to treat public health as a legal norm in order to maximize health benefits and minimize risk of vaccines. In short, creating of norm of honesty and forthrightness when informing the public and everyone be held accountable.
REFERENCES
Black, C., Kaye, J., & Jick, H. (2009). Relation of childhood gastrointestinal disorders to autism: Nested case control study using data from the UK general practice research database. British Medical Journal. 325, 418-421. Cannell, J. J. (2015). Autism causes, prevention & treatment: vitamin D deficiency and the explosive rise of autism spectrum disorder [E-Book Version]. Retrieved from https:// ezproxy.alfred.edu Immunization Safety and Autism, https://www.cdc.gov/ vaccinesafety/00pdf/ CDCStudiesonVaccinesandAutism.pdf. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/hcp/imz/child-adolescent.html Geir, M. R., & Geir, D. A. (2003a). Thimerosal in childhood vaccines, neurodevelopment disorders and heart disease in the United States. Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons.8(1), 6-11. Geir, M. R., & Geir, D. A. (2003b). Neurodevelopmental disorders following thimerosal-containing vaccines. Experimental Biology and Medicine. 228,660-664. Geir, M. R., & Geir, D. A. (2006). A meta-analysis epidemiological assessment of Neurodevelopmental disorders following vaccines administered from 1994 through 2000 In the United States. Neuroendocrinology Letters. 27(4), 401-413. Gerber, J., & Offit, P. (2009). Vaccines and autism: A tale of shifting hypotheses. Vaccines. 48(4), 456-461. Gross, L. (2016). In search of autism’s roots. PLOS Biology. 14(9), 1-3. https://doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2000958.g001 https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/immunizations/Pages/History-of- Immunizations.aspx Hiviid, A., Stellfeld, M., Wohlfahrt, J., & Melbye, M. (2003). Association between thimerosal- containing vaccine and autism. Journal of the American Medical Association. 290(13), 1763-1766. Hornig, M., Briese, T., Buie, T., Bauman, M. L., Lauwers, G., Siemetzki, U., Hummel, K., Rota, P. A., Bellini, J., O’Leary, J. J., Sheils, O., Alden, E., Pickering, L., & Lipkin, W. I. (2008). Lack of association between measles /virus vaccine and autism with entereopathy: A case-control study. PLoS ONE. 3(9), 1-8. https://www.vaccinesafety.edu/IOM-Reports.htm Madsen, K. M., Hiviid, A., Vestergaard, M., Schendel, D., Wohlfahrt, J., Thorsen, P., Olsen, J., & Melbye, M. (2002). A population-based study of measles, mumps and rubella vaccination and autism. The New England Journal of Medicine. 347(19), 1477-1482. Parmet, W. (2010), Pandemics, populism, and the role of law in the H1N1 vaccine campaign. Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law. 4,1061-1082. Parmet, W. (2016), Health: policy or law? A population-based analysis of the supreme court’s ACA cases. Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law. 41(6), 113-153. REFERENCES Pitney, J. Jr. (2017). The politics of autism: Navigating the contested spectrum. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc. Singh, V., Lin, s., Newell, E., & Nelson, C. (2002). Abnormal measles-mumps-rubella antibodies and CNS autoimmunity in children with autism. Journal of Biomedical Science. 9, 359-364. Suryadevara, M., Handel, A., Bonville, C. A., Cibula, D. A., & Domachowske, J. B. (2015}. Pediatric provider vaccine hesitancy: An under-recognized obstacle to immunizing children. Vaccine. 33(48), 629-634https://www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/Vaccines/default.htm Wakefield, A. J., Murch, S. H. & Anthony, A., Linnell, J., Casson, D., & Malik, M. (1998). RETRACTED: Ileal-Lymphoid-Modular Hyperplasia, Non-Specific Colitis and Pervasive Developmental Disorder in Children. The Lancet. 351(9103), 637-641. White, E. (2014). Science, Pseudoscience, and the Frontline Practitioner: The Vaccination/Autism Debate. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work. 11(3), 269-274. Wolff, S. (2004). The History of Autism. European Child Adolescent Psychiatry.13, 201-208.
Cite this page
Vaccinations and Autism. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Study Finds no Autism Link in Vaccines
The article titled “ Study Finds No Autism Linked in Vaccines” was super interesting to me. My mother has worked with little babies who have disabilities for over twenty years so this subject caught my eye. She has told me forever how some people believe that vaccines cause autism and how that is so incredibly false. I sent her this article once I finished reading it.
The article starts off by talking about how In 1998 there was a journal called the Lancet written by a an with 12 children who have autism or other kind of behavioral issues saying that the problems were linked to the MMR vaccine. Then another study came our at the federal court of the U.S. saying that the MMR vaccine was linked with autism. I remember reading about this before and hearing how many people in the US really started to freak out about this at the time and that year had a low vaccine turn out for children. Then a professor of epidemiology from Columbia University said "There was no evidence . . . MMR preceded either autism or GI problems" in the children studied, he said.
Then there was an examination done distributed in the diary Public Library of Science One, said that at the point when the youngsters started demonstrating social issues and when they were immunized, and it inspected gut biopsies for obvious hereditary hints of the MMR antibody. Since acquiring the biopsies required steadying the kids and an obtrusive technique, Lipkin said his investigation was constrained gave an example of 38 younger people who required the biopsies as a feature of their therapeutic consideration. The scientists contemplated the biopsies for hints of measles infection RNA. Where a recent report had discovered follows of the measles infection in a high level of biopsies taken from medically introverted kids, the new examination did not - and furthermore found no distinction in the biopsies of kids who were medically introverted and offspring of comparable age who were definitely not.
Then it talked about how, Lipkin said the hypothesis connecting MMR immunization to chemical imbalance includes a chain of occasions where the live infection in the measles immunization would develop in the intestinal tract, cause aggravation and trigger arrangement of poisons that would influence the focal sensory system. On the off chance that the emotional outcomes announced in the before research were exact, Lipkin and his coauthors stated, they ought to have discovered hints of measles RNA in inside biopsies of a huge extent of the medically introverted children.
Then they found follows in only one kid who was medically introverted and one who was most certainly not. Understanding promoter Rick Rollens, who is persuaded that immunizations made his child end up medically introverted, said the new research had been thoroughly directed. Rollens, who helped to establish the MIND Institute at the University of California at Davis, which considers chemical imbalance and other neurodevelopmental issue, lauded the investigation for featuring the significance of gastro-intestinal issues among medically introverted youngsters, however he anticipated it would not put the debate to rest.
"This investigation has tended to one of numerous speculations" about how immunizations may be connected to chemical imbalance, Rollens said. "This examination independent from anyone else does not absolve the job everything being equal." Larry Pickering, a pediatrician and inoculation master at Emory University and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, said the 1998 investigation and others had provoked a few guardians to renounce immunizing their youngsters. To me this issue is super interesting and I would love to learn more about autism in general.
Cite this page
Study Finds no Autism link in Vaccines. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Children diagnosed with Autism have abroad range of conditions identified by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication. Most behaviors occur because children with autism have troubles communicating their wants and needs. There are many different options and devices that make it easier for non-verbal children to communicate, such as, Picture Exchange Communication (PECS), Augmentative and Alternative communication (AAC), and Tape Recorders. With these device’s children are advancing not just educationally, but also socially.
The Picture Exchange Communication, also known as PECS, are small icons that show the child what they want or need. The PECS can be displayed as a schedule, or in a sentence structure that say’s “I want…”. The child is to hand this to the person they are communicating with to let people know what it is that they prefer. When using the PECS there is no noise that lets the child know what the actual PEC is. The child must go off what they see in the picture. The person who the child is communicating to should say aloud what the PEC says that they are being handed, this will help the child start to understand what the PEC is saying. The more the child hears the word after handing the PEC, the child will understand when to use the right PEC at the appropriate time. (Wegner)
The Augmentative and alternative communication, also known as the AAC Device, is another method to help non-verbal children, or children who have troubles expressing themselves, express their wants and needs. According to the Indiana Institute, the AAC device is a microprocessor on a personal computer (PC) or a personal device, such as, an iPad. The AAC device is similar to the pecs, instead a bit more advanced. The child would touch the button of their choice and an automated voice will say the button aloud. Many individuals on the spectrum are more comfortable interacting with inanimate objects such as a computer or Ipad. The AAC device helps in curricular activities, work projects, or writing, but most importantly it helps in speech/language therapy, functional life skills, organization skills, and increasing independence. (Indiana Institute)
I am currently working with a non-verbal student who uses an AAC device. I have been working with this student for 2 years. The first year we communicated through selective sign language. We have recently used the AAC device, but I have seen very few behaviors since we have been using the AAC device, this is because my student is able to communicate to me wants, needs, expressions and feelings. The AAC device has not only helped my student, but it has helped me get to understand my student a lot better with likes and dislikes, food preferences, and emotions. After a few months of using the AAC device my student is now attempting to say some words, following along with the AAC device.
The AAC devices help non-verbal children in many different areas. Communication, visual schedules, decision-making, motivating tool, video modeling, social networking, vocational assistance. Todays technology helps in each area. Visual schedules are very crucial for autistic children, they need to know what the next task is next after completing the one they are on. According to autism speaks, “Individuals with autism who have more difficulty communicating can use technology to make their “voices” heard regarding decisions, which helps foster the self-advocacy skills that are so important as they age into adulthood.”
The AAC device can be used as a motivation tool by using the child’s favorite app games as a reward. (Autism Speaks)
In conclusion, almost all devices are going to help non-verbal children communicate a lot easier then no device at all, but I believe the AAC Device is more effective. The device helps the children learn sounds when pressing the button and hearing the voice command with it. It helps children with fine and gross motor skills, and functional life skills.Works Cited
- “What Is Autism?” Autism Speaks, www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism.
- “Technology Advancements Helping Children Adapt to Autism.” Lifeonspectrum.com, lifeonspectrum.com/technology-advancements-helping-children-adapt-to-autism/.
- “Indiana University Bloomington.” IIDC - The Indiana Institute on Disability and Community at Indiana University, www.iidc.indiana.edu/pages/the-use-of-technology-in-treatment-of-autism-spectrum-disorders.
- “AAC and Autism: Using Communication Devices for Non-Verbal Children.” Speech And Language Kids, 24 Feb. 2017, www.speechandlanguagekids.com/giving-voice-non-verbal-children-autism-aac-autism/
Cite this page
Autism Spectrum Disorder. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Autism and the Use of MRI
Abstract
In this paper, the relationship between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and the use of magnetic resonance imaging will be discussed. Autism is a very common neurodevelopment disorder with many different symptoms. Diagnosing and treating autism can be challenging because of how different every case of ASD truly is. Early detection is important for getting ahead on treating the symptoms that go along with ASD to create more positive outcome for the patients. Using MRI can open the doors for doctors and researchers to learn even more about this disorder and how to treat it. The studies discussed in this paper will explain how the use of structural MRI can allow physician to see how an autistic patient’s brain size and appearance differs from typically developing individuals, and the use of functional MRI can be used to compare the brain’s activity. Sleep fMRI is also discussed in how it can help with early detection in children. Overall, the discussion is about how MRI can better the understanding, detection, and treatment of ASD.
Autism and the Use of MRI
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopment condition that has a wide variety of symptoms that can effect a patient’s social skills, speech or other ways of communication, and also can include different repetitive behaviors. One third of children with autism are nonverbal, and there are also many children that have gastrointestinal disorders, anxiety, and attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) along with many other symptoms. The conditions of ASD are very diverse because every case can be so unique because of different genetic and environmental blends can effect an ASD patient’s conditions. Around 1 in 68 children are effected by autism, and boys are much more likely to have the disorder.
Diagnosing autism can become a process; usually, if a parent or physician is concerned of ASD being a possibility, they will do a general screening which is normally suggested to the parents of infants anyway. After the screening, if there is a strong possibility of the patient having autism, the doctor will do a complete evaluation to confirm the diagnosis of the patient (Autism Speaks, n.d.). According to Shen et al (2013), early detection is critical because the earlier ASD is diagnosed positive results are more likely to happen when treating impairments. Most of the time diagnosing and understanding autism is only done by observation or screening, but with radiology, doctors are now seeing the signs of autism with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) which could lead to an earlier detection.
There are multiple types of MRI that can help with these studies. Structural MRI is used to understand the anatomy of the brain. The data received from structural MRI can explain shape, size, and white and gray matter within the brain. Structure can be very important when understanding function of the brain, and this is why structural MRI is so useful. The next form of MRI is used for mostly neural activity rather than anatomy. Functional MRI can use tasks or something visual to stimulate the brain, and then doctors can compare the changes of neural function and compare the results with other patients. Using these two functions of MRI can help doctors or researchers understand normal or unusual brain function. Also, fMRI and structural MRI aid in the research or treatment involving neurological disorders (Center for Functional MRI, n.d.).
Throughout this first study, the use of structural MRI for studying autism is discussed; also, the comparison of the brain between patients with ASD and typical developing individuals. With the help of MRI, doctors can study the brain without anything invasive and allows researchers or doctors to view the structural changes of patients with ASD. These studies look for the differences between patients with autism and how their brain growth persists the older they get using structural MRI. With structural MRI, the brain volume in children with autism can be observed and compared. Multiple scans were performed on young children throughout the ages of a year and a half to five years who all were confirmed to have autism at around the age of four years old, and the researchers also performed scans on children without autism. When the scans were studied, it was found that most children with ASD had a cerebrum and many other divisions of the brain that were enlarged by the time the patient was two and a half. These studies have found that young children with autism have atypical enlargement of brain volume compared to normal developing children (Chen, Jiao, & Herskovits 2011). According to (Chen et al., 2011), the enlargement seems to relate to an increase in “gray-matter (GM) and white-matter (WM) volumes.”
Although enlargement is found within children, it is vague if whether or not the enlargement continues as the child gets older. Although the enlargement is seen within children, there have also been reports of autistic adults with substantially smaller parts of the brain within the corpus callosum. Throughout these MRIs, many differences and abnormalities were seen throughout the scans. Consistent abnormalities were seen throughout the patients’ white matter, frontal and temporal lobes, as well as other parts of the brain (Chen et al., 2011). Pointing out the abnormalities becomes difficult because the symptoms of ASD cannot be found as a result of one specific part of the brain; the multiple symptoms of autism could be explained by certain neural systems and how they perform together (Dichter, 2012). These studies are an example of how magnetic resonance imaging can assist doctors in identifying they physical differences between patients with ASD and typically developing individuals (Chen et al., 2011).
In the next study reviewed, they researched the relationship between extra-axial fluid and children who develop autism spectrum disorder. This study differs because the children involved in the study had not yet been diagnosed with autism. The study began with 64 infants, 41 of who were high risk because they had sibling with ASD. The other 23 participants had no relatives with the disorder and were considered low risk. Throughout the case, the number of participants decreased to 55 children (33 high risk and 22 low risk). The participants were scanned three times during sleep using a 3 Tesla Siemens TIM Trio MRI system from the ages of six months to 24 months. After the series of scans were complete, there seemed to be a trend with the high risk children. Some of the high risk children who participated in the study had similarities within the subarachnoid space. According to Shen et al. (2013), the children had “the presence of ‘prominent extra-axial fluid.’ Extra-axial fluid is characterized by excessive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).” After the scans were completed and the children were old enough to be diagnosed, ten of the high risk children were classified to have ASD at 24 months old, and eight of them were officially diagnosed at 36 months old. Eight of the other children who were high risk had developmental delays, and only three children from the low risk group had developmental delays, but none of them were diagnosed with ASD.
There are many features that extra axial fluid and autism spectrum disorder share. Shen et al. (2013) explained that these traits include “enlarged head circumference early in life, higher rate in boys than girls, and a co-occurrence with seizures.” Although there has been no previous relationship between ASD and extra axial fluid, increased cerebrospinal fluid has been found in patients with autism. After this study and research was conducted, the results concluded that if the presence of the significant amount extra axial fluid has not gone away by the time the child is two years old that it could be a possible symptom of autism in children. This study would not have been possible without the use of MRI and also shows how imaging could help with early detection of children with autism. (Shen et al., 2013). This study showed how certain things that were seen in children with ASD could potentially be seen before the normal time of diagnosis.
According to Dichter (2012), MRI (fMRI) “has proven to be a useful tool to investigate aberrant neurobiological function in ASDs because of its excellent contrast properties, spatial resolution, and temporal resolution.” Although fMRI can be very useful, it can become difficult when performing the scans on children. Children are not able to undergo functional MRI because the scans cannot be completed if they are awake or alert because the procedure must be done with the patient completely still. FMRI has become possible to perform the procedure with children by doing the scan during nature sleep which is known as sleep fMRI. This allowed doctors to understand more about an autistic child’s brain function in which they have been unable to do before. FMRI is allowing doctors to see some of the earliest signs of autism which is vital for the future of a child with ASD (Pierce 2011). According to Pierce (2011), sleep fMRI can allow doctors to make a diagnosis even earlier than they thought possible and will allow treatment to occur much sooner.
With autism spectrum disorder being so common and the diversity of behaviors with autistic children, the use of MRI is opening the doors for doctors to detect the early signs and to understand even more about the disorder. Structural MRI and functional MRI can both play very important roles for studying ASD. Structural MRI allows researchers to observe the differences between brain volume in typical developing children and in children with autism, and functional MRI allows doctors to review brain activity and function. Sleep fMRI is also becoming the way for doctors to make even earlier detection because it allows them to perform scans on patients at a much younger age. With the research being done and early detection becoming even more possible, advances in imaging are creating a clearer picture of what parts of the brain are different for children and adults with ASD and how this effects their brain activity. With imaging, individuals with ASD can have the possibility of more positive treatment because of even earlier detection, and doctors can have a better ability of understanding autism and the parts of the brain it effects.
References
Autism Speaks. (n.d.). What is autism? Retrieved from https://www.autismspeaks.org/what- autism Chen, R., Jiao, Y., & Herskovits, E.H. (2011, May). Structural MRI in autism spectrum disorder. Pediatric Research, 69(5 pt 2), 63R-68R. doi: 10.1203/PDR.0b013e318212c2b3 Center for Functional MRI. (n.d.). What is fMRI? Retrieved from https://fmri.ucsd.edu/Research/whatisfmri.html Dichter, G.S. (2012, September 14). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of autism spectrum disorders. Dialogues Clinical Neuroscience. 14(3), 319-351. Pierce, K. (2011, March 22). Early functional brain development in autism and the promise of sleep fMRI. Brain research, 1380, 162-174. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.09.028. Shen, M.D., Nordnal, C.W., Young, G.S., Wooton-Gorges, S.L., Lee, A., Liston, S.E., Harrington, K.R., Ozonoff, S., & Amaral, D.G. (2013). Early brain enlargement and elevated extra-axial fluid in infants who develop autism spectrum disorder. Brain: A journal of neurology, 136, 2825-2835. doi: 10.1093/brain/awt166
Cite this page
Autism and the Use of MRI. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
The Maternal Microbiome and Autism
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a series of development disorders which include autistic disorder, Rett’s disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder, and Asperger’s syndrome. Autism spectrum disorders are classically characterized by, among others, severe and pervasive impairment in several areas of social and behavioural development (5). Recently, numerous basic science studies in mice and epidemiological studies in humans have revealed a link between Maternal Immune Activation (MIA) and ASD phenotypes (2-4, 6). Furthermore, instances of MIA leading to ASD like phenotypes appear to be primarily linked to immune activation in the first 2 trimesters (7). Herein, we will review several recent studies that begin to elucidate the mechanism linking MIA and ASD as well as the key role played by the maternal micorbiota in driving these pathways.
Hsiao et al. 2013, demonstrates GI barrier defects and microbiota alterations in the MIA model displaying offpsing with ASD-like phenotypes. Parrallelling epidemiological studies in humans that showed increased instances of IBD and other GI disorders were highly prevelant in ASD individuals (9). Investigators demonstrated that adult MIA offspring exhibited a number of similar GI defects, notably increased gut permeability as demonstrated by the translocation of dextran across the intestinal epithelium (8). The disbiosis of gut microbiota was also described in ASD individuals, and while a well defined ASD-assocaiated microbiota has not been established, rigorous examination of the composition of the ASD-associated microbiota revealed that while overall abundance of identified bacteria did not change, the alterations in the specific operational taxonomic units of both Clostridia and Bacteroidial were significant. Introduction of B. fragilis, which had been previously shown to emeleriate colitis (15) was able to correct the intestinal permeability in MIA offspring. In addition, administration of B. fragilis restored MIA-associated increases in IL-6, which has been previoulsy shown to be increased in MIA mothers and offspring (6, 10). Treatment with B. fragilis not only decreased the GI defects in MIA offspring, it also acted to return the microbiota toxonomy toward a more “normal” composition, reducing the disproportionate ratios found in MIA offspring. In addition to restoring the normal microbiota composition B. fragilis treatment also reduced ASD-like behavioural abnormalities. Suggesting a link between the microbiome and CNS that is still largely unexplored.
Next we examine the effect of the maternal microbiota on early postnatal immune system development as described by de Aguero et al.. Here investigators used gestation-only colonization and germ-free delivery to ensure that any change in neonatal immune composition was limited to encounters with the maternal microbiota only during gestation. At 14 days post-birth it was shown that elevated numbers of early post-natal intestinal innate leukocytes, specifically the NKp46+ROR?t+ ILC3 subpopulaiton, as well as intestinal F4/80+CD11c+ mononulcear cells (iMNC) were present in pups born to gestation-only colonized dams compared to germ-free controls. Counter to the innate leukocyte alterations seen in the germ-free animals, the adaptive immune composition of the neonates was not impacted. No difference was seen in T or B cell levels in the central or peripheral lyphoid organs as well as systemic CD4 or CD8 T cell numbers. Investigators went on to show significant changes to the transcriptional programming in the intestinal epithelium. These transcriptional changes included upregulation of gene networks repsonsible for a wide range of intestinal functions that were previoulsy associated with post-natal colonization, indicating that maternal microbial colonization may shape not only the early post-natal immune response but intestinal epithelial development as well. Alterations to the NKp46+ ILC3 populations relied upon maternal antibodies, with the effect being successfully recapitulated through serum transfer from colonized to non-colonized dams. This effect was lost however when the serum was depleted of IgG, indicating an antibody driven mechanism. Interestingly, when antibody-deficient pregnant dams were transiently colonized the increase in NKp46+ ILC3, but not the F4/80+CD11c+ iMNC subpopulations was lost. This indicated that a different mechanism for the increase in iMNC was present. An extensive range of bacteria-derived molecules were shown to be transferred from the mother to the offspring as well. In short, it was determined that contrary to general concensus the early post-natal immune system, as well as intestinal development is shaped by interaction with the maternal microbiota.
We will now examine this intertaction between maternal microbiota and the prenate, in the presence of inflammation, and its promotion of neurodevelopmental abnormalities (3) and autism like phenotypes (4). Both Choi et al. 2016, and Kim et al. 2017, describe the degenerative effects of IL-17a on neurodevelopment and the resulting ASD-like phenotypes in the offspring of mothers who underwent a Th17 inducing inflammatory response. In Choi, et al. 2016, it was shown that elevated levels of maternal IL-17a induced from MIA resulted in abnormal cortical development in offspring. Injection of a viral mimic, poly(I:C), during gestation resulted in elevated levels of IL-6, TNF?, IFN-?, and IL-1? almost immediately, followed by a strong increase inserum levels of IL-17a approximately 2 days later. It was previously shown that IL-6 is necessary for Th17 cell differentiation (10) and plays a key intermediary role in multiple neurological disorders (6). This was reinforced when IL-6 KOt mice failed to to increase serum levels of IL-17a when injected with poly(I:C) and conversely when wild-type mothers injected with IL-6 showed greater IL-17a responses, validating IL-6 as a necessary upstream precursor to IL-17a. Increases in maternal circulating IL-17a resulted in augmentation of IL-17a receptor (IL-17Ra) in the fetal brain.
Upregulation of maternal IL-17a resulted in abnormal cortical development which promoted ASD-like phenotypes such as repetitive and anti-social behaviors (4). Injections of IL-17a directly into the fetal brain in the absence of MIA resulted in similar but not identical abnormal cortical development suggesting that some pre-existing inflammation is necessary to fully reproduce the cortical disorganization seen in ASD-like offspring. ROR?t expression in maternal T cells was also shown to be necessary for the development of ASD-like phenotypes in MIA offspring, further supporting the hypothesis that a Th17 inducing inflammatory response is required to promote the ASD-like phenotype in mice. Finally, it was demonstrated that in the presence of inflammation either knock out of ROR?t espression or IL-17a-blocking antibody given to pregnant dams were able to rescue the ASD-like phenotype from MIA offspring. Indicating both may be effective therapeutic targets. Kim et al. 2017, was able to further elucidate this complicated interplay between inflammation, MIA, and pregnancy. Pregnant dams injected with poly(I:C) followed by treatment with vancomycin decreased the the proportion of Th17 cells in the intestine and reduced the levels of IL-17a in the maternal plasma. Segmented fillamentous bacteria (SFB) were identified as being both susceptibel to vancomycin (11) and greatly contribute to intestinal Th17 cell propogation (12). Naturaly occuring differences in SFB in different mice strains were used to validate this hypothesis. Showing SFB colonization resulted in an increase in pre-existing Th17 cells as indicated by a very rapid increase in plasma IL-17a levels.
The complex link between the maternal microbiota, the maternal immune system, and their combined effects on the developing fetus is just beginning to be understood. Numerous avenues from which to pursue these relationships are apparent, and these datas point towards a few key points that have yet to be elucidated. The first being ROR?t and its dichotomous role. For instance, when expressed in NKp46+ ILC3 or iLT cells its role appears somewhat protective (13), compared to its role in T cells inducing pro-inflammatory Th17 cell differentiation resulting in increased levels of IL-17a and the described effects on neurological development. Secondly the unique intestinal milieu of pregnancy and why it appears a necessary requirement for the secretion of key intermediary cytokines IL-1?, IL-6, and IL-23 upstream of IL-17a (3). Changes in the maternal microbiome have previously been shown to increase levels of Bacteroides and Staphylococcus species especially mothers with comorbidities (14). As aberrant ratios of Bacteriodes species were identified as a potential role player in MIA pathogenesis (2) it would be interesting perhaps to investigate if there is a hormonal effect at play here.
References
1. Gomez de Aguero, M., S. C. Ganal-Vonarnburg, T. Fuhrer, S. Rupp, Y. Uchimura, H. Li, A. Steinert, M. Heikenwalder, S. Hapfelmeier, U. Sauer, K. D. McCoy and A. J. Macpherson (2016). "The maternal microbiota drives early postnatal innate immune development." Science 351 (6279): 1296-1302. 2. Hsiao, E. Y., S. W. McBride, S. Hsien, G. Sharon, E. R. Hyde, T. McCue, J. A. Codelli, J. Chow, S. E. Reisman, J. F. Petrosino, P. H. Patterson and S. K. Mazmanian (2013). "Microbiota modulate behavioral and physiological abnormalities associated with neurodevelopmental disorders." Cell 155 (7): 1451-1463. 3. Kim, S., H. Kim, Y. S. Yim, S. Ha, K. Atarashi, T. G. Tan, R. S. Longman, K. Honda, D. R. Littman, G. B. Choi and J. R. Huh (2017). "Maternal gut bacteria promote neurodevelopmental abnormalities in mouse offspring." Nature 549 (7673): 528-532. 4. Choi, G.B., Y. S. Yim, H. Wong, S. Kim, H. Kim, S. V. Kim, C. A. Hoeffer and D. R. Littman (2016). “The maternal interleukin-17a pathway in mice promotes autism-like phenotypes in offspring.” Science 351(6276): 933-939 5. APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc; Arlington, VA: 2000. 6. Smith, S. E., Li, J., Garbett, K., Mirnics, K., & Patterson, P. H. (2007). Maternal immune activation alters fetal brain development through interleukin-6. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 27(40), 10695-702. 7. Patterson P.H. (2009). Immune involvement in schizophrenia and autism: etiology, pathology and animal models. Behavioural Brain Research, 204:313–321. 8. De Magistris L, Familiari V, Pascotto A, Sapone A, Frolli A, Iardino P, Carteni M, De Rosa M, Francavilla R, Riegler G, Militerni R, Bravaccio C. (2010). Alterations of the intestinal barrier in patients with autism spectrum disorders and in their first-degree relatives. Journal Pediatric Gastroenterol Nutrition. 51(4):418-24. 9. Kohane, I. S., McMurry, A., Weber, G., MacFadden, D., Rappaport, L., Kunkel, L., Bickel, J., Wattanasin, N., Spence, S., Murphy, S., Churchill, S. (2012). The co-morbidity burden of children and young adults with autism spectrum disorders. PloS one, 7(4). 10. Kuchroo, V. K. and A. Awasthi (2012). "Emerging new roles of Th17 cells." European Journal of Immunology 42(9): 2211-2214. 11. Ivanov, I. I., Frutos, R., Manel, N., Yoshinaga, K., Rifkin, D. B., Sartor, R. B., Finlay, B. B., Littman, D. R. (2008). Specific microbiota direct the differentiation of IL-17-producing T-helper cells in the mucosa of the small intestine. Cell host & microbe, 4(4), 337-49. 12. Ivanov, I. I., Atarashi, K., Manel, N., Brodie, E. L., Shima, T., Karaoz, U., Wei, D., Goldfarb, K. C., Santee, C. A., Lynch, S. V., Tanoue, T., Imaoka, A., Itoh, K., Takeda, K., Umesaki, Y., Honda, K., … Littman, D. R. (2009). Induction of intestinal Th17 cells by segmented filamentous bacteria. Cell, 139(3), 485-98. 13. Vonarbourg, C., Mortha, A., Bui, V. L., Hernandez, P. P., Kiss, E. A., Hoyler, T., Flach, M., Bengsch, B., Thimme, R., Hölscher, C., Hönig, M., Pannicke, U., Schwarz, K., Ware, C. F., Finke, D., … Diefenbach, A. (2010). Regulated expression of nuclear receptor ROR?t confers distinct functional fates to NK cell receptor-expressing ROR?t(+) innate lymphocytes. Immunity, 33(5), 736-51. Kiel Peck Immunology 501: The Maternal Microbiome and Autism November 26, 2018 14. Maria Carmen Collado, Erika Isolauri, Kirsi Laitinen, Seppo Salminen. (2008). Distinct composition of gut microbiota during pregnancy in overweight and normal-weight women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Volume 88, Issue 4, 1 Pages 894–899. 15. Mazmanian, S. K., J. L. Round and D. L. Kasper (2008). "A microbial symbiosis factor prevents intestinal inflammatory disease." Nature 453: 620.
Cite this page
The Maternal Microbiome and Autism. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
The Evolution of Autism
Autism is a neurobiological disorder that results in difficulty communicating with anyone and social impairments. The first discovery of autism was by Leo Kanner in 1943 ( Lyons, V., and M. Fitzgerald). Over time the definition of autism has changed with new discovers. Up unit the 1970s autism was thought to be no more than a symptom of schizophrenia (Martin). Disorders such as epilepsy and down syndrome can occur. Everyone is different when it comes to what disabilities they have and what ones they do not have. 1910 was the very first time that any mention of autism had every appeared in medical literature (Martin). Autism did not become a disability legally until 1991. There is no medical testing that can be done to diagnose autism. Symptoms include avoiding eye contact, being very sensitive, and repetition. Developmental screening and comprehensive diagnostics can be used to diagnose, but some doctors like to use mu- wave suppressions.
Developmental screenings sees if the child knows skills that are appropriate for their age. This type of screening should be conducted at nine months, eighteen months, and between twenty four and thirty months old. Comprehensive diagnostic exam checks the comprehension of the child, the child's behavior and development. During this exam there is vision and hearing screening, genetic and neurological testing, etc (“Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)”). A diagnosis can occur at eighteen months or younger. The most reliable diagnosis is made around the age of two. Other testing will be performed if the child is related to someone who has autism because they have a higher risk of having autism. During the 1990s when children were diagnosed they would wait months to be seen by a doctor who knew little to nothing about autism (Baker, JP). Autism can not be cured, so treatment will not make it go away, it will only make the it better. The sooner treatment is started the better of the child will be. There is three different categories of treatment, I being well-established, II being probably efficacious, and III being experimental. Therapy should not begin with emerging treatment options, and unestablished options should not be used at all (Suchowierska, Monika). The Autism Society of America gives information on new treatment options. Cure Autism Now funds treatment research projects (Project Autism).
Treatment options include but are not limited to behavior therapy, sensory integration, schedules, and music therapy (Mitrani, Judith/Suchowierska, Monika, and Gary Novak). Applied behavior analytic also known as ABA which was discovered by O. Ivar Lovaas (Smith, T) and vest can also be used. The vests known as squeeze vest allow one to feel like they are cozy and secure (Mitrani, Judith). Therapy that works for one may not always work for someone else. Media attention has helped change the public view on autism over time. Many movies have been created with the main character having or showing symptoms of autism. Movies that portray autistic characters include The Boy who Could Fly, Rainman, What's Eating Gilbert Grape?, Adam, My Name is Khan, and Temple Grandin (Project Autism). The most know is Temple Grandin. Temple Grandin is known for being a human livestock handling industry top scientist (Project Autism). Since the discovery of autism there has been negativity. To many with autism stereotypes challenge them often. While media has helped get rid of many stereotypes, some still exist. Media attention also creates new stereotypes. Many of the stereotypes are created usually because of the lack of communication, different expressions of their thoughts and feelings, and actions (Martin, Danielle N). Stereotypes make many feel like they are alone in the world. Studies show parents that have at least one if not more children with autism end up getting divorced (Martin, Danielle N).
Cite this page
The Evolution of Autism. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
The Reaction of Mothers and their Families to the Diagnosis of ASD
There are significant differences in the way Latina mothers and White mothers react to their child’s ASD diagnose. A study conducted by Lopez, Magaña, Xu and Guzman (2018), explored the reaction of mothers and their families to the diagnosis of ASD by comparing open-ended responses of 44 Latina mothers and 52 White mothers. The results indicated that both sets of mothers had an equal emotional reaction to the diagnosis. The emotions range from guilt, depression, disbelief, devastation, loss and denial. But differed in the way they handle the aftermath. Latina mothers felt guilt and blame themselves for their children’s condition after their children were diagnose (Lopez, Magaña, Xu & Guzman, 2018). They reported wondering if they did something wrong during their pregnancy that resulted in their children having Autism. In contrast to Latino Mothers, White mothers reported feeling relieved after their children were diagnose and reassure about their parenting skills. Latina mothers expressed a sense of unfairness as their children were diagnosed, while, White mothers reported waiting for a diagnosis in order to move on and look for treatments and services. Latina mothers reported not knowing much about what autism is. They were not informed and lacked skills to advocate for services for their Children. In contrast, White mothers reported being well educated about the subject, capable of advocating and seeking the right services or treatment for their child. As for their families, both sets of mothers indicated that their families were emotionally distress with the diagnosis, feeling shock, in denial and saddened.
Dividing child care responsibilities and paid employment amongst parents of a child or adolescent with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) may be hard; yet many parents are faced with this difficult decision. Tension arises as the couple decides who will take on the child care responsibility for the child or adolescent with ASD and who will be responsible for the financial means.
A study conducted by Hartley, Mihaila, Otalora- Fadner and Bussanich (2014), found a pattern of role specialization among parents of children and adolescents with ASD. The fathers were more likely to spend significantly higher level of time in paid employment and the mothers spend significantly higher level of time in child care related to the child or adolescent with ASD. This pattern was more pronounced in families with children or adolescents with ASD, than in families of typically developing children and adolescents. Even though, role specialization has been shown to be related to high levels of parenting stress and other indices of poor psychological well- being in mothers in the general population and in mothers of young and grown children with other developmental disabilities; this was not the case for mothers of children and adolescents with ASD (Hartley et al. 2014). Mothers who were responsible to provided care for their child or adolescent with ASD, showed lower indices of stress and a moderate psychological well- being. On the other hand, fathers who spend larger amounts of time in paid employment experienced greater levels of work-related stress and were prone to spillover work-related stress into their parenting experiences. Both, mothers and fathers reported adjusting well to their role and marriage and mothers were satisfied with the time their spouse spent in child care.
Parents of children with ASD typically have higher levels of stress related to parenting as well as greater personal emotional distress compared to parents of typically developing children or parents of children with other developmental disabilities (Manning, Wainwright, Bennett 2011). A recent study found that couples who had a child with ASD were more likely to divorce than a matched comparison group of couples who had children without disabilities. Married couples with children with autism shared common perceptions about factors that help to keep their marriages strong: communication and shared foundational ideas about marriage.
Cite this page
The Reaction of Mothers and their Families to the Diagnosis of ASD. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Valproic Acid and Autism
INTRODUCTION
Autism is a neurodevelopmental Disorder, one of five disorders classified collectively as autism spectrum disorder, is diagnosable by the age of three. Diagnosed individuals may show many symptoms such as pervasive impairments in social interactions, deficits in verbal and nonverbal communication and, stereotyped, repetitive patterns of behaviors & interests (Zimmermann, Gaspary, Leite, Cognato, & Bonan, 2015). Autism is said to have a strong genetic & environmental connection. However, the etiology of autism has not yet been copiously understood or studied (Chen, et al., 2018).
Effects of prenatal exposure to valproic acid, one of the widely used antiepileptic drug for the treatment of seizures and bipolar disorder and overactivation of Protein Kinase C is being discussed in this paper (Liu, et al., 2018).
PRENATAL EXPOSURE TO VALPROIC ACID
Exposure to valproic acid during embryonic growth adjusts neural progenitor cell proliferation and could also cause behavioral disfigurements in adult organisms (Lee, Kim, Yun, & Lee, 2013). Embryos collected from Wild-type AB line spawning adult zebrafish within about 0.5 h of spawning had been exposed to a VPA stock solution of 500 mM for the initial step of this study. The working solution had been prepared by diluting stock solution instantly prior to the experiment. The six different concentrations of solutions where the embryos from 8 to 120 h post fertilization were continuously exposed were between 0 and 1500 ?M, with the 0 being the control (Chen, et al., 2018).
Developmental endpoints measured in this study comprised of malformations & mortality at 120 hours post fertilization. In this study the experiments contained of three biological triplicates with 20 embryos in each repeat. At the end embryos were moved to clean fish water for additional evaluations where the size of their head was measured at 4.5 days post fertilization and behavioral patterns were evaluated five days post fertilization with the use of Alcian blue stain and Image J software procedures (Chen, et al., 2018).
Zebrafish embryos exposed to Valproic acid were assessed for Embryonic and larval movement behaviors, spontaneous movement such as alternating tail bending or coiling, the response to touch in embryos that were manually dechorionated and the distance moved after touching were scored manually. Moreover, Larvae were adapted for 20 minutes before recording swimming for 10min visible light period, followed by a 10-minute dark (infrared light) period for evaluation of the average swim speed in light and dark atmospheres (Chen, et al., 2018). Basic tracking settings were used for larval movement tests such as their preference behavior of light and dark backgrounds and the number of times larva crossed between light & dark areas where data collected every 60sec for 6 minutes. Shoaling behaviors, Mirror attack behaviors and, Social contact were additional tests that was carried out (Chen, et al., 2018).
OVERACTIVATION OF PROTEIN KINASE C
AB strain zebrafish larvae soaked in PMA, a Phorbol 12-myristate- Subgroup of PKC enzyme between 48?hours and 72?post fertilization were used in this study. Once the chorions were detached at 12?hours post fertilization embryos were exposed to DMSO and PMA, then collected for subsequent analysis once 24 hours passed. RNA isolation and Reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was carried out on an ABI Viia 7 Real Time PCR System for further analysis at the end of the experimental procedures (Liu, et al., 2018).
The head size was demarcated by the otic vesicle & semicircle of eyes as posterior and lower frontier. Measurements just as in the previous study were estimated using ImageJ software. For the Behavioral assays larval fish that were placed in a 24-well plate inside a wooden box were monitored on automated video tracking system in two cycles of 5-minute light and 5-minute dark backgrounds. Western blotting, Immunostaining and, TUNEL labeling procedures had been used for additional valuations (Liu, et al., 2018).
RESULTS
It was confirmed that valproic acid exposures induced several malformations in the zebrafish. Uninflated swim bladder, pericardial edema and yolk sac edema had been observed. Consequently, the occurrence of abnormalities was found to be significantly diverse compared to control larvae at concentrations including and above 500 ?M (P < 0.001) with 100% of larvae displaying malformations at 1500 ?M. It was also verified that valproic acid did not produce larval mortality in any tested concentrations at 120 hours post fertilization (Chen, et al., 2018).
Most importantly it was found that valproic acid exposure in zebrafish produced a macrocephalic phenotypic head where the circumference of the head is greater than 2 standard deviations than average for a given age and sex. However, no changes in the body length were noted. Additionally, the lowest concentration of valproic acid (5 ?M, P < 0.05) found to produce an increased intraocular distance while all exposure groups (P < 0.05 for 50 and 500 ?M; P < 0.001 for 5 ?M) showed significantly increased lower jaw and certohyal cartilage lengths compared to the controls (Chen, et al., 2018).
The hypothesis of early-life PKC hyper-activation leading to mild developmental delay and reduced brain size resulting in neurogenic defects was verified in the study of protein kinase experimentation. It was also evaluated that zebrafish exposed to PMA were hypoactive in lighted backgrounds and hyperactive in the dark phased environments (Liu, et al., 2018).
DISCUSSION
Evaluating the studies, it is clear that non-teratogenic valproic acid exposure resulted in macrocephalic phenotypes in larval zebrafish, fabricating hyperactivity and impaired social behavior (Chen, et al., 2018). Deficits in social interaction, anxiety and stereotyped activities which are considered outcomes of a dysfunctional neural system could be compared with some of the core characteristics associated with autism spectrum disorders (Lee, Kim, Yun, & Lee, 2013). Increased head circumference and volume is also a clear visual abnormality that could be seen in some autistic individuals at a certain point of their life. PKC hyper-activation during early development could cause many pathological features such as developmental delays, motor abnormalities and exaggerated stress responses. Furthermore, neuropathogenic effects of developmental PKC hyper-activation was reinforced by behavioral changes (Liu, et al., 2018).
Several neurological and psychiatric syndromes are characterized by variations in the social realm (Zimmermann, Gaspary, Leite, Cognato, & Bonan, 2015). The optical lucidity and quick development, comparable stages and components of the central nervous system to higher vertebrates, all have made Zebrafish an ideal and advantageous model for many different research studies (Roper & Tanguay, 2018). Even though behavioral studies could be immeasurable accurately the identification of targetable molecular pathways underlying neurodevelopmental defects could create paths in the development of possible therapeutic strategies for autism as well as countless other disorders that affect the society.
References
Chen, J., Lei, L., Tian, L., Hou, F., Roper, C., Ge, X., . . . Huang, C. (2018). Developmental and behavioral alterations in zebrafish embryonically exposed to valproic acid (VPA): An aquatic model for autism. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,66, 8-16. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2018.01.002 Kim, L., He, L., Maaswinkel, H., Zhu, L., Sirotkin, H., & Weng, W. (2014). Anxiety, hyperactivity and stereotypy in a zebrafish model of fragile X syndrome and autism spectrum disorder. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry,55, 40-49. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2014.03.007 Lee, Y., Kim, Y., Yun, J., & Lee, C. (2013). Valproic acid decreases the proliferation of telencephalic cells in zebrafish larvae. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,39, 91-99. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2013.07.004 Liu, T., Shi, Y., Chan, M. T., Peng, G., Zhang, Q., Sun, X., . . . Cheng, C. H. (2018). Developmental protein kinase C hyper-activation results in microcephaly and behavioral abnormalities in zebrafish. Translational Psychiatry,8(1). doi:10.1038/s41398-018-0285-5 Roper, C., & Tanguay, R. L. (2018). Zebrafish as a Model for Developmental Biology and Toxicology. Handbook of Developmental Neurotoxicology,143-151. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809405-1.00012-2 Zimmermann, F. F., Gaspary, K. V., Leite, C. E., Cognato, G. D., & Bonan, C. D. (2015). Embryological exposure to valproic acid induces social interaction deficits in zebrafish (Danio rerio): A developmental behavior analysis. Neurotoxicology and Teratology,52, 36-41. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2015.10.002
Cite this page
Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Valproic Acid and Autism. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Autism Spectum Disorders Definition
There have been many medical advancements through research and technology. Unfortunately, there are still many unanswered questions when it comes to those who a neurotypical and those who are atypical, particularly younger individuals who have been diagnosed with a developmental disability. Throughout this paper, I will be using past findings and research to define Autism Spectrum Disorders, contrast milestones that neurotypical children and children with autism, and mention a few options for families who have a child with this disorder.
Developmental psychology is one of many branches, in which there are many different definitions, however a similar tenet. Through the different developmental theories, it is agreeable that the majority of everyone that development consists of a series of changes that results on interactions that vary between biological and environmental factors (Whitley, 2009). The first few years of children's learning and development are crucial. For neurotypical children, what are the developmental milestones and timeline?
According to Wallace (2018), the term developmental disability is used to describe multiple disorders that can affect different domains of a child life such as their cognitive, language, and behavioral functioning. Specifically, Autism Spectrum Disorders are disabilities that can cause challenges with social and communication that vary with functioning levels (Wallace, 2018). This paper focuses on neurological development disorder called Autism. Autism can negatively affect a child's ability to communicate and interact socially. Those who have been diagnosed with Autism could show trouble in different areas, including emotion. For instance, children with Autism will not be able to communicate whether they are sad, mad, happy, etc (Wallace, 2018).
Developmental Milestone
The developmental milestone has been established in different domains, such as fine and gross motor, problem-solving, social, and language (Scharf, Scharf & Stroustrup, 2016). During the first month of birth, the infant starts the attachment and security phase. Between six and eight weeks, the infant should be able to make appropriate responses such as cooing. At the age of four months, the infant will reach the milestones of rolling back and forth, shake objects and reach for things as well. When five and six months roll around, infants should be able to sit up, feed themselves with easy food, and become more aware of strangers. By nine months the infant should be very mobile and active when playtime and socializing (Schard, Scharf & Stroustrup, 2016).
A child can have delays in all ranges, which is own as global delay, which is defined as having delays in all areas of development. Those who show a delay in the developmental area does vary based on the individual. During the neonatal period of an infant, the delay might show lack of responding to loud sounds or the indifference between the infant and caregiver. An infant will show a delay around four months that has the possibility of being unable to make appropriate sounds, inability to roll. Those infants who are around the age of 6 months might not be able to smile, laugh, or express emotions with caregivers. At nine months, the infant will still not be able to be active and mobile and will show a disinterest with other babies their age (Scharf, Scharf & Stroustrup, 2016). Those infants who may have a delay may not be able to respond to loud sounds during the neonatal period.
According to the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2011), some few developmental delays include language delay, loss of speech, reduced responsiveness of expressions, rejection of cuddles, and absent awareness of personal space or interest with peer socialization. Those who have delays also tend to have repetitive behavior. Children like to have a daily schedule and tend to be very distraught if something messes up their schedule (Wallace 2018).
Imitation is also a very crucial component of development during the first years of life. During the second year, imitation of sounds, gestures, and actions should increase as part of the process of learning about the world and negotiating social relationships. One study compared Autism Spectrum Disorders and development which showed that those who have delays in imitation might suggest something that could lead to social or communication deficits (Young, Rogers, Hutman, Rozga, Sigmanv & Ozonoff, 2011). However, even though there is some consistency with these results from research it is still unclear on whether these developmental symptoms can be reliably diagnosed due to the young age of the participants.
Red Flags
A con to a developmental delay includes worry from parents. There are many reasons as to why a child could have delays in the developmental area. Children do not reach milestones at the exact same age as other children. Everyone varies when it comes to developments. Research has mentioned some "red flags" that is a reason for concern. These concerns can not only come from children but also from the parents as well.
Previous data has shown that those caregivers who are unable to recognize infants cues, struggling with a disorder of their own, or decrease in opportunities for their child to play and learn attribute red flags for developmental delays of their children (Scharf, Scharf & Stroustrup, 2016). There are many different reasons as to why an individual might show developmental delays. Past research has shown that prematurity, malformations in the cerebral area, chromosomal disorders, infections, and other diseases might be contributed to developmental delays (Premature infants are the leading cause of neurodevelopmental disabilities in children. Research supports this by stating those infants who are born prematurely have a significantly higher risk of behavioral and learning delays when compared to infants who make are born full term ( Scharf, Scharf & Stroustrup, 2016). These delays that are seen in premature infants include cognition, language, and social fields. There studies that have shown that preterm infants are one of the leading causes of neurodevelopmental disabilities in children. When compared to those who are carried full-term, there are significantly increased risk of behavior disorders and learning (Scharf, Scharf & Stroustrup 2016).
Diagnostics and Factors
Autism is considered to be among the most heritable neuropsychiatric disorder. A study done in Denmark, Fin-land with twins found higher concordance for monozygotic twins than for dizygotic twin and estimated a heritability of greater than ninety percent for Autism. The concordance rates were higher when Autism Spectrum Disorder was considered in addition to the strict diagnosis of Autism. However, even though there were high heritability estimates, identification of the genes responsible for the disorder remains elusive. Also, there has been data that has supported chromosomal structural alterations, such as duplications or deletions of chromosomes that have been identified in three to five percent of autism subjects (Brkanas, Rasking & King, 2018).
There are two major theorists in developmental psychology. Piaget and Vygotsky are both highly influential. Piaget’s theory uses four stages of development, while Vygotsky's theory focuses more on human interaction as a way of development (Smith, 2003). Both have had an impact on today's developmental fundamentals. The learning process and social life are known to impact a child developmental stages.
As stated earlier, there have been many advancements in the medical world. Comparing to just twenty years ago, there are many tools that can be used for screening which is more beneficial to rapidly identify individuals for further evaluation. Families have the option to have their child screened. What is screening? According to Wallace (2018), screening is defined as the administration of a standardized tool that will help is a diagnostic evaluation to determine if that child has a developmental disorder. Even though it is the parents final choice on whether they make the decision to allow their child to be screen early, if the parents say ‘yes’ to screening and their child has an identified “positive” for a disorder they make that decisions to have a clearer diagnosis by using more comprehensive history, testing, and examinations (Scharf, Scharf & Stroustrup, 2016) . The earlier delays are detected the more time for medical professionals to be able to provide intervention services. Early screening for Autism is now becoming a standard clinical practice, so for those who decide to opt into these early screenings, can being earlier interventions and treatments.
The standard for diagnosing Autism Spectrum Disorder is based on clinical history and patient observation performed by trained clinicians.In today’s time, there are many kinds of services that are available for those individuals who show developmental delays. There are new technological discoveries in the genetics of autism that are allowing medical professionals to look into different approaches for diagnosis and treatment. With children who show delays, there is a range of domains that might be affected by this delay. For example, domains in social, cognition, or motor skills will be affected and render the ability to play with other kids, communication impairment, etc. (Scharf, Scharf & Stroustrup, 2016). Tools such as the Denver Developmental Screening Test, Ages & Stages Questionnaires, and the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers are used by clinicians, each test used for specific assessments (Scharf, Scharf & Stroustrup, 2016). There are also other diagnostic tools that can be used by trained clinicians. These structured diagnostic tools are the Autism Diagnostic Interview and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (Brkanas, Raskind & King, 2008).
Children who do exhibit red flags are usually referred to as therapy. For example, those who show language delays can be sent to therapists that focus on speech and language such as speech pathologists. There are also options for children who show delays but have no known history of disorders can be referred to a genetic specialist to run different assessment and genetic testing (Scharf, Scharf & Stroustrup, 2016). Basic goals for intervention services are to enhance the child's current development trajectory and reduce the potential for long-term disability. Past data has shown that those children who do receive early intervention are developing better than those who do not receive early intervention services, which showed improvement in cognition, social interaction, and communication skills (Wallace, 2018).
Conclusion
There are new technological discoveries in the genetics of Autism that are enabling different approaches to the diagnosis and treatment. Being able to fully emerge and understand the role of genetics, the approach to Autism will be altered forever.
Autism is such a complex disorder that that with any of the still-emerging understanding of the different roles of genetic, environmental, and social domains that there will continue to undoubtedly affect diagnostic and treatment approaches. However, it is important to remember that although there are milestones that are used to determine developmental growth, if an individual does not meet that age-appropriate milestone that does not mean that they for certainty have a disability, the individual could easily be contributed to late development.
?
Cite this page
Autism Spectum Disorders Definition. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Telehealth in India Experiences of Parents of Children with Autism
I am interested in studying the use of technology to support delivery of instruction to train parents of children with Autism in India. India being the second most populous country in the world and home to nearly a fifth of the world's population does not have an estimate of prevalence of autism (Rudhra et al., 2010). Some experts say that one in 68 children are diagnosed with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in India (Kumar & Best, 2006).With nearly 70% of the population living in rural areas, access to community services for children with Autism is limited. The World Health Organization (WHO) identified geographical factor as the primary barrier for families in rural areas to receive services for individuals with intellectual disabilities. Likewise, most professional services for autism is concentrated in the big cities of India and hence families in rural or remote areas have limited access to evidence-based intervention. Thanks to the Digital Economy initiatives taken by the Indian government, India ranks as the second largest country in internet usage (Kumar & Best, 2006). Trailing behind China, it ranks higher than the USA in terms of internet users. Hence, the use of telemedicine technology such as ‘Telehealth’ could[AME2] help families overcome this barrier in a country like India.
Telehealth is a delivery model that uses digital information and communication technologies to provide therapeutic services remotely. Technologies include smartphone, mobile internet, mobile apps, videoconferencing, streaming media, and wireless communications. Now, Telehealth can reach out to any users regardless of their location, be it in a large city or any remote part of the country. This is made possible because of advanced technology tools at the hands of the users to include internet-enabled handheld devices, video conferences or live streaming of videos.
Taking advantage of technological advances, Telehealth utilizes parents to deliver social interventions to children with ASD. (McDu e et al. 2013; Vismara et al. 2012, 2013; Wainer and Ingersoll 2015). Parent training is an alternative and attractive intervention as it increases teaching opportunities and scope for generalization and reduces treatment cost significantly. As parents are a proficient long-lasting agent of change, it is worthy to invest in parent training. With the advancements in technology it is now possible to provide training over distance which would increase access to evidence-based interventions to families with limited resources in their community. Results of evidence-based interventions are encouraging for Telehealth services in treating disorders and refining the approaches. (Webb et al., 2010).
Presently in India there are only two institutions who are using a Telehealth model to deliver Parent training sessions virtually. The enrollment of parents has been increasing steadily and is predicted to continue to grow in the upcoming years. Therefore, I would like to study the experiences of parents of children with Autism using telehealth in India.
I believe that qualitative methodology would be an appropriate research strategy because I hypothesize that my data would help me understand the how parents with children with Autism interpret their experiences and what meaning they attribute to their experiences. Since the technology involved in the service delivery will be the same universally, it is important to understand the experiences of individual families in India. I believe that I will need an in-depth data collection system and analysis to understand the practical challenges that are contextual to India’s geography and culture.
Study Context
The Telehealth model was evaluated using surveys ( Telehealth Provider Satisfaction Survey Telehealth Caregiver Satisfaction Survey Parent Satisfaction Questionnaire, Bearss & Bearss, 2017) and rating scale (modified version of the Behavioral Intervention Rating Scale, Wainer and Ingersoll 2014). Overall parents responded favorably to both components of the model - online modules and videoconferencing. In response to the survey about the limitations of the program, parents noted challenges associated with the remote coaching sessions including difficulty with accessing the video-conferencing program and difficulty maintaining the child’s engagement in front of the video camera (Wainer and Ingersoll 2014).
Although, Telehealth has been studied via Surveys and evaluated by rating scales there are no studies that have attempted to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the experiences of parents who have been using Telehealth. As mentioned earlier Telehealth seems to be a viable option for parents in India who do not have access to Community based services. Therefore, it is important to understand the experiences of the parents who are using Telehealth in India to be able not only add to literature but also to help inform institutions who are primarily involved in designing the service delivery model.
Research Question
How do parents of children with Autism interpret their training experiences using Telehealth in India?
Research Methods
Type of Qualitative Approach
The type of qualitative approach that I would like to use is “Basic Qualitative Study” as I am interested in (a) how people interpret their experiences with Telehealth and what meanings they attribute their experiences.
Merriam (2009) describes a basic qualitative research study as having been derived philosophically from constructionism, phenomenology, and symbolic interaction and as being used by researchers who are interested in "(1) how people interpret their experiences, (2) how they construct their worlds, and (3) what meaning they attribute to their experiences. The overall purpose is to understand how people make sense of their lives and their experiences" (p. 23). Ultimately, the purpose of educational qualitative research is to improve our practice and the basic qualitative research design is particularly well suited to obtain an in-depth understanding of effective educational processes (S. B. Merriam, personal communication, September 5, 2013).
Setting and Participants
There are currently two institutes in India that have started using Telehealth models to train parents so I plan on interviewing at least 4 parents which can be either the mother or the father.
Data Collection
Data will be collected via interviews from at least 4 parents in India who have been receiving training via Telehealth. The interviews will be audio recorded and then transcribed for further analysis. The interview will be semi-structured and will included primarily open-ended questions with scope for clarifying questions as and when the need will arise.
Data Analysis
Data will be Analyzed as suggested by Merriam (2009) which would basically involve identifying recurring themes or patterns supported by the data from which they are derived. Similar patterns that go together will be grouped and categorized. As described by Creswell (2007), following these patterns, I would interpret my findings by drawing links and making sense of the patterns that seem to be building up across the data collected from the participants. Finally, the findings that are relevant to the research question will be represented in tables and figures if applicable.
Data Quality/Limitations
As Basic Qualitative Research method is criticized to have a self-image biased colonial representation of the findings that researchers may take (Glesne, 2011), steps will be taken to reduce this bias and enhance the Trustworthiness of the study.
Data triangulation will be used to show the research study’s findings are credible. Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena (Patton, 1999). Triangulation also has been viewed as a qualitative research strategy to test validity through the convergence of information from different sources. In order to do accomplish credibility, Analyst triangulation will be employed. This will involve utilizing another analyst to review the findings from my data to illuminate any blind spots in process of Data Analysis.
The second strategy that I will use to enhance the Trustworthiness of my study would be Member-checking. I will be sharing my data, interpretations and conclusions with the parents who participate in my study. This will provide the opportunity for parents to clarify their intentions, correct errors and provide any further information.
I will also provide an Audit Trail which would include details of every step of data analysis that was made in order to provide a rationale for the decisions made. This will help establish that the research study’s findings accurately portray participants’ responses. Thus, further enhancing the Trustworthiness of the study.
Implications
This study will examine the service delivery model, Telehealth, as a as a viable alternative and attractive intervention in terms of increased teaching opportunities and enhanced scope for generalization and reduced treatment cost without compromising the quality of care delivered to families.
Telehealth may be an effective supplement to traditional, in-person parent training, particularly to geographic areas in India where community services are limited. Benefits to this approach may include reduced cost, lack of travel expenses, convenience and flexibility of online learning, and accessibility to evidence-based interventions. However, not all families will benefit equally from telehealth intervention. When evaluating effectiveness with this type of platform in a country India, it will be critical to assess the breadth of conditions and necessary resources under which a program is successful, the learning and cultural characteristics of parents and children related to success and reliability of high speed internet for video conferencing. Therefore, having an in depth understanding of the experiences of parents with children with Autism undergoing training using Telehealth will not only add to literature but also to help inform institutions who are primarily involved in designing the service delivery model. This study will ultimately help to determine how viable telehealth may be for providing intervention at minimal cost.
Cite this page
Telehealth in India Experiences of Parents of Children with Autism. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
The Effect of the Octopus Watch on the Task Completion of Self-Care Skills in Children with Autism
Independence is the ultimate goal for the majority of individuals in our society. For many, this goal is attained sometime between 18 to 30 years of age. However, for other individuals, such as those diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), full independence may never be attained; the aim then becomes to minimize the dependency on caregivers and providers. According to Shattuch, Narendorf, Cooper, Sterzing, Wagner and Taylor (2012), about 80% of adults with autism live at home and only 6% have paid jobs. These statistics are alarming, clearly indicating that greater efforts are needed to design and use effective interventions that teach long-lasting functional daily living skills to individuals with disabilities.
Functional living skills are those necessary to be an independent and productive individual in society (Hong, Davis, Neely, Ganz, Morin, Ninci, Boles, 2017); they include a variety of skills, from toileting and personal care to grocery shopping, banking and social skills (Ayres, Mechling, & Sansosti, 2013). Given some of the core characteristics of ASD, such as repetitive and stereotypic behaviors, deficits in language and communication skills, and poor attending skills, individuals with autism heavily depend on others to accomplish daily living skills (Hong et al., 2017). According to Hume, Loftin, and Lantz (2009) there are three particular factors of ASD that hinder the acquisition and maintenance of skills: prompt dependence, initiation, and generalization of skills.
Prompt dependence refers to learners relying on their instructors or caregivers to help them complete a task (even after they have already learned the task) (Mays & Heflin, 2011). Initiation refers to the lack of motivation to initiate different tasks, such as chores, homework or even social interactions and, again, reliance on others to get started; Last, generalization refers to the individual’s ability to demonstrate learned skills with untrained stimuli and people, as well as in untrained settings (Hume et al., 2009).
Hume et al. (2009) also reviewed three intervention strategies that have been effective in increasing independence in individuals with autism: Self- monitoring, individual work systems and video- modeling. These interventions are believed to be successful because they all focus on shifting stimulus control from continuous adult prompts during tasks to alternative stimuli.
In self-monitoring, the individual learns to discriminate and record the occurrence or absence of a particular target behavior. In this intervention, the stimulus control remains within the individual; that is, the learner is the one who attends to his own behavior and determines if the behavior meets the requirement for reinforcement. When teaching self-monitoring skills (i.e., ability to monitor one’s own behavior) in individuals with autism, four steps are followed: (1) creating an operational definition for the target behavior, (2) determining reinforcers, (3) choosing a self-management method or device, and (4) teaching the learner to use the selected method (Hume et al., 2009). This strategy has been effective in changing a variety of behaviors seen in individuals with ASD. For example, when monitoring their own behaviors, individuals have improved on-task behavior (Callahan & Rademacher, 1999), reduced stereotypic behavior (Koegel & Koegel, 1990), increased pro-social behaviors (Morrison, Kamps, Garcia, & Parker, 2001), and, most importantly for the purpose of this study, increased the performance of daily living skills without prompts from the caregiver or provider (Pierce & Schreibman, 1994). With self-monitoring, the learner has greater autonomy and responsibility, which reduces the dependence on prompts from others in their environment (Hume et al., 2009).
Similarly, an individual work system is a teaching strategy that highlights visual supports and focuses on reducing the recurrent need for teacher prompts and feedback and increasing independent functioning (Hume et al., 2009). In individual work systems, the learner practices mastered skills in a visually organized setting. In this setting, the work system transmits four pieces of information: (1) the target task the learner is supposed to complete, (2) how much work the individual needs to do, (3) how the learner will know when he/she is finished with the task, and (4) what to do once the task has been completed. This strategy uses a left-to-right system where the learner completes all of the activities placed on their left and then moves them to the right (i.e., the finished pile) as they complete them. In this intervention, the stimulus control shifts from the caregiver’s or provider’s prompts to the visual stimuli presented.
Video modeling is another visual strategy that promotes teaching different skills with minimal prompts from others. This is the third intervention reviewed by Hume et al. (2009). With video modeling, the individual learns a skill by imitating the behavior modeled by another person in a video. This technique is appealing to individuals with ASD because it helps them attend to relevant information required for the task while blocking out distractions. Furthermore, watching videos is a pleasurable activity for most individuals with ASD (Hume et al., 2009).
One strategy not mentioned by Hume et al. (2009) that has also been effective in promoting independent skills and reducing prompt dependency is the use of visual activity schedules (VAS) (Koyama & Wang, 2011). This approach utilizes visual cues to teach the learner a sequence of activities or tasks independently (McClannahan & Krantz, 1999). The purpose of activity schedules is to give the learner a visual cue of what will come next in his or her schedule. The visual cues are pictures, photographs or textual prompts related to the task. For example, an image of a sink would signify it is time to wash hands and an image of a bed would represent time to go to sleep. Parallel to the interventions mentioned earlier, stimulus control can be transferred from the caregiver or provider to the picture. Once the learner masters responding to the picture cues alone, the pictures can then steer behavior in the absence of a caregiver (Koyama & Wang, 2011). Outcomes of existing research have shown that people with disabilities can learn to use picture cues so effectively that they can even follow successfully multiple long behavior chains (e.g., washing hands, brushing teeth and then dressing). These results are significant because they indicate that VAS can be a useful strategy in reducing prompt dependency in individuals with disabilities, while promoting independence. Furthermore, activity schedules are not limited to particular ages, intellectual functioning or diagnosis and can be adapted and individualized for all persons (Koyama & Wang, 2011).
A review of the literature by Knight, Sartini, and Spriggs (2015) examined 16 studies to determine if visual activity schedules can be considered an evidence-based practice. Interventions are believed to be evidence-based when they have consistently shown to be effective in at least five research studies, three geographical locations, and with a minimum of 20 participants (Knight et al., 2015). Based on the studies reviewed, the authors determined that visual activity schedules meet the criteria to be called an evidence-based practice and can be used to maintain, expand and generalize a variety of skills in multiple settings. Further, their results suggested that VAS can be used to (1) teach on-task behavior and appropriate transitions, (2) decrease latency to begin tasks, and (3) decrease the need of prompts during transitions.
Similar to the results of Knight et al. (2015), in a literature review by Koyama and Wang (2015), they found that activity schedules increased engagement and on-task behavior. They also suggested that one reason why disruptive behaviors may decrease with activity schedules is that as individuals allocate more time on on-task behavior less time is allocated to maladaptive behaviors. One caveat they discovered from different studies is that when the researchers removed the activity schedules, on-task performance declined to baselines rates. However, as soon as they represented the activity schedules, performance increased back to post-treatment levels. This finding is important because the mode of presentation may have higher significance than we think; in other words, the way in which the visual schedule is presented to the individual (e.g., binder, book, Velcro strips, or portable device) may be a crucial variable in determining the success the individual will have with following the schedule. Due to the previously mentioned deficits observed in individuals with autism such as stereotypic behaviors and poor attending skills, activity schedules that require the individual to carry a binder or book with multiple pictures may be cumbersome. In a situation where the child loses one picture from the schedule or misplaces the entire binder, then he/she will not be able to follow independently the activities scheduled in his day. Thus, other devices that are easier to carry and can be easily accessed may be better alternatives to individuals with attending deficits.
In the last years, a couple of studies have embedded activity schedules within different portable devices including a tablet and an iPod touch (Brodhead, Courtney, & Thaxton, (2018); Carlile, Reeve, & Debar, 2013). For example, Brodhead et al. (2018) evaluated the effects of using a visual activity schedule embedded within an iPad to vary the play across different applications in three children with autism (age range 4-9). The activity schedule was a six-slide presentation created with the keynote application (similar to PowerPoint). The first page showed the participant’s name and the second through the fourth page depicted two pictures on each slide: one of a timer application and one of the application they had to play during that slide. The fifth slide showed the picture of the YouTube application and a timer, and the sixth slide said, “The end.” Brodhead et al. (2018) used manual guidance to teach each participant how to follow the schedule and did not provide any praise or tangible reinforcers during teaching sessions. Nonetheless, they programmed the YouTube application to be at the end of each sequence to potentially serve as a reinforcer for the completion of the previous three tasks. Results showed that all participants varied their play from one application during baseline to an average of four applications during treatment.
In the same way, Carlile et al. (2013) taught four children (ages 8-12) with autism to independently organize their spare time by using a visual activity schedule embedded within an iPod touch and in the absence of a supervisor or reinforcement. The researchers added five pictures (of different activities) to the photo icon on the iPod touch, and the participants followed the schedule in the order of the pictures. Similar to Brodhead et al. (2018), Carlile et al. (2013) used manual guidance to teach the participants how to complete the activity schedule; however, they faded prompts using a progressive-time delay procedure instead of using graduated guidance. They also used nine different levels to fade the proximity of the experimenter and thin the schedule of reinforcement from FR-2 (i.e., reinforcer delivered after every two correct responses) to no reinforcement at all. Before the intervention, none of the participants were able to correctly follow any of the components in the activity schedule provided on the iPod Touch. After the intervention, the percentage of correctly completed components increased from 0% to an average of 95% in all participants. The percentage of intervals scored on-task also increased for all participant from an average of 15% to an average of 90%. Both studies, Brodhead et al. (2018) and Carlile (2013) demonstrated that activity schedules were effective in increasing on-task behavior, the percentage of correctly completed steps and improving independence altogether.
To date, there have not been any published studies examining the use of activity schedules embedded within a watch to increase the task completion of self-care skills in children with autism. Thus, the present study will assess the effect of the Octopus Watch on the task completion of three self-care skills in four children diagnosed with ASD. The dependent variables will include the latency and duration of completing tasks and the percentage of correctly completed activity schedule components in the absence of a caregiver or provider.
Cite this page
The Effect of the Octopus Watch on the Task Completion of Self-Care Skills in Children with Autism. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Autism the Quiet Disorder
Which is the face if autism? (point to the poster, wait a minute then go get Doug from hallway) this is the face of autism. In 2018 the autism speaks foundation found that "1 in 59 children are diagnosed with autism, 1 in 37 for boys and 1 in 151 for girls". This means that one autism affects more boys than girls and that at least one kid is diagnosed every year and their life and their family's life changes forever. When someone thinks of autism they think stupid, retarded, handicapped, not normal. All these things are myths while there are some kids lower on the spectrum they are not stupid, retarded, handicapped, or not normal; these kids are the same as you and me yet people still treat them differently. If someone didn't say that this person had autism no one would have ever known because the only difference between them and you is their brain is a little behind in development but they are so smart and creative and think of stuff you would never dream of.
When someone is diagnosed with autism it's not like cancer where you can treat it and fix the problem; autism is not a problem to be fixed nor should it be treated like one. Autism is not a one-man fight, no it affects everyone in their life from their mom that is stress trying to do the best for their child to the siblings that all they want to do is protect them and do everything they can for them. When I started in sixth grade it was the first time I wasn't going to be in the same school as Douglas and I remember that year starting and being so nervous for him because all I wanted to do was be there for him and protect him but now it felt like I was leaving him to the predators for them to eat him alive. I remember that year going on and on and by the end of the year I realize Douglas didn't need me to always be there; he needed me to be there for the tuff times, the times' homework is too hard when he needs help cause he doesn't understand something. That year was the most eye-opening school year for me and at that moment I understood that there is no problem that needs to be fixed by a doctor; Douglas was amazing the way he was. See that's what people don't understand they think autistic people need to fix because they aren't good enough but that isn't the case. Every day at least one person makes fun of autism saying that if you have a dumb moment you must be autistic but that isn't the case. From now on understand no matter where a person is on the spectrum they are perfect the way they are, they are no different than all of us in this room and that making fun of autism doesn't matter someone cooler or funnier it just makes a person ignorant for not caring.
Cite this page
Autism the Quiet Disorder. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Autism Research
Part 1: Demographics
Kendall, now 11 years old, was diagnosed at the age of 2 with Autism Spectrum Disorder at the moderate level. Kendall is a special education student at an elementary school and receives accommodations. Kendall cannot speak so she uses sign language to speak. Kendall lives in a middle class home with both parents and two siblings, Jackson-age 9 and Jordan-age 13. Kendall’s mother is a Respiratory Therapist in a private practice and her father is the Assistant Principal at an elementary school. Kendall is the first known diagnosed family member with Autism. Name of person you are interviewing: Dondrea Geter Name of individual with the disability: Kendall Geter Describe the disability: “Kendall’s pediatrician told us that Autism is a developmental delay disorder that affects the brain and that’s why she didn’t make eye contact with us when we called her name” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018). Age of the individual with the disability: Kendall was diagnosed right before she turned 2, and now she is 11 years old” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018). Describe the relationship between family members and the individual with the disability: “It’s very hard for my extended family to communicate with Kendall because they don’t understand her condition, so they tend to talk at her, sometimes. My wife and myself and her siblings have learned sign language so that we can communicate with her. At least we can half way understand what she wants or needs” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018).
Part 2: Questionnaire Interview
How did you learn that Kendall has a disability? (Who was present? When did this happen?) If you were giving advice to professionals who need to explain to a parent that his/her child has a special need, what would that advice be? “My wife and I both noticed that when we would call Kendall’s name, she would not respond at all; it was as if she didn’t hear us and. We also noticed this when she was about 10 or 11 months. We just thought that she was busy watching television. She would stare at an object for a long time and when we would try to play with her, she would become easily agitated. We continued to watch her and more symptoms started to appear. So we decided to take her to the doctor to have her hearing tested. We thought maybe the reason she didn’t respond to us was because she couldn’t hear us. So we told the doctor about how she was acting and he suggested running other tests. He diagnosed her with Autism at 20 months, right before she turned 2. My advice to professionals would be to have compassion and patience with the parents and already have a game plan or suggestions about how to deal with a child who has Autism.
Many people don’t know and/or understand this disorder. My wife and I were not prepared to hear that our child has not only a disability but also Autism. I also think that professionals should have resource available to give to parents about what the first step is after diagnosis. I, myself, know about Autism from an Educators standpoint but now I understand and can relate to the families of my students with disabilities. I now have a different perspective” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018).
How did you feel when you received the diagnosis? “I was relieved and overwhelmed at the same time. I was glad that we finally knew what was going on with Kendall and that she wasn’t deaf but wasn’t ready to hear that our child has Autism. After the shock of the news, I began to research and find resources in our area that we could turn to. I also begin researching a specialist that we could take her to, to be evaluated so that we could start early prevention. We wanted to make sure that she would have every opportunity at a normal childhood and educational opportunity available. We wanted to make sure that we would be able to communicate with her and that she could understand us” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018).
Have your feelings changed since the initial diagnosis? Describe. “Yes, I think that my feelings have changed slightly. I don’t feel as overwhelmed now. Since we are able to communicate Kendall and we have strategies in place at school to ensure that she receives a quality education as well as special education services, I know that we are doing all we can for her. Each year at her annual IEP meeting, there’s progress, so I know that she is progressing” (D Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018). What have been the positive aspects of having a child in the family with a disability? “Well, I think that Kendall’s condition has made us be more patient with each other, come together as a family, and has made me more humble. We, as a family, chip in to help Kendall with things she’s not able to do on her own. Our children interact with her more and they try to keep her in good spirits. We spend a lot of time in our family room talking, watching movies, and playing games. I think that is extremely important that we are a positive family unit and we stick together no matter what. As a parent with a child with disabilities, it can get stressful but with God, we can withstand any storm that comes our way” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018).
What have been the problems or challenges you have experienced having a child with a disability? “When Kendall was younger, having to try and teach her sign language and communicate with us was very challenging. We actually had to seek an ASL translator to teach us how to sign. I know that it was extremely difficult for Kendall. But now she does attempt to speak a few words to us. Also, teaching her to potty train was exhausting because she could not understand what we wanted her to do and she was confused on when to go. Kendall was fully potty trained when she turned 7. Also, getting her to sit still to eat was a challenge. She would eat but it was hard to get her to sit still long enough to do so. I think the biggest challenge was incorporating a routine when she started school. I think that each challenge was difficult but with time and patience, we were able to overcome the obstacle. I know that as she gets older, there will be more hurdles to jump so I pray for guidance. Once Kendall gets use to a routine, she does ok” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018). How did your other children react to learning their sister had a disability? What impact has Kendall had on them? “At first, I think that Jordan was a little confused, but she was really young when Kendall was diagnosed. Jordan wanted to play with Kendall but Kendall did not want to be touched and didn’t respond when Jordan would speak to her. My wife and I explained to Jordan (when she was older to understand) that Kendall couldn’t talk to her. I think it was a little hard in the beginning for the both of them.
When we had Jackson, we taught him sign language as he got older to understand and he had adapted to Kendall. Both, Jordan and Jackson, help out a lot and enjoy spending time with their sister. I think that Kendall’s condition has taught them that everyone is uniquely made and that we should treat each other’s, as we would want others to treat them. I also think that it has taught them patience, compassion towards others, and to always be kind to others” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018). What kinds of support have been most helpful to you (family members, parent groups, neighbors, other)? How would you prioritize your family needs and the areas in which you feel you need more assistance? “Our family and friends have really been supportive. They have provided additional resources for us. They’ve provided prayers for understanding, and a shoulder to lean on, in case we needed. We have met with other parents of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder at meeting. So, overall, we have all the support we need. I don’t think that we need more assistance right now but of course my family always come first. I think that we prioritize the way we spend time with our children. We ensure that everyone eats together and that we have family fun nights. This way we can spend time with each other because of our busy schedules” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018).
What have been your experiences in working with school personnel? What have they done that has been most helpful? What have they done that was least helpful or even harmful? “Overall, the school personnel at Kendall’s school have been great. They send home daily reports about her behavior or anything that I may need to know about. I really like that they do this because it keeps me in the loop of what’s going on in the classroom. It also shows me that she is getting one on one time. They also keep me in the loop, via email, about classroom activities. I really have a sense that she’s receiving great care. I really can’t complain about Kendall’s school. I’m satisfied with her teachers as well as the administration. One thing comes to mind that they could do, they could include more computer time. Kendall really loves the computer” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018). How could the school help your child transition to adulthood? “At this point, since she is so young, I think that there’s nothing that the school could teach her to transition into adulthood other than maybe how to shop for food. I think that Kendall will not be able to live independently. But being able to take her to the grocery store and have her help deciding what foods she want would be great” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018).
If I were to be Kendall’s teacher next year, what advice would you want to give me so that she has an optimal learning experience? “I would tell you to have patience with Kendall. I would also tell you to develop a strategy in order to gain her interest in the lessons that you teach. You would also need to make her feel safe in the classroom and consistency is key. Kendall likes routine. We have a routine at home on how things are done everyday and on the weekend and if we alter it slightly, it sets off her behavior that turns into tantrums. Kendall is a sweet and loving child but she has to have structure. Kendall also loves the computer, so you may want to incorporate a few lessons via technology. Also, communication is key for her mom and I. We like to be informed about what’s going on with Kendall, whether it’s daily or weekly. We like to stay in the loop and occasionally we will come and visit” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018). What would you want me to do/not in terms of my interactions with you if I were Kendall’s teacher? “Just communicate with us about Kendall’s progress.
We want to make sure that she is learning and enjoys school. But we do want to make sure that she is benefiting from the services she’s receiving. Just keep us in the know! “ (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018) I am just learning about students with disabilities and how to work effectively with them in my classroom. What other information would you like me—and my classmates—to know about working with children with special needs? “Always treat these kids like they were your own. Have patience with them, guide them, and treat them with respect. Find a way to be able to relate to them so that they feel safe and that the classroom room is a safe haven. Create a bond with them so that they can be confortable in the classroom environment. Also, have compassion and treat them with kindness. It takes a strong individual to deal with special needs children. I think that you should also incorporate small group, one on one time, and interactive activities in your lesson. I know that Kendall enjoys interactive hands on activities” (D. Geter, personal communication, November 30, 2018).
Part 3: Summary of Research-Based Strategies
Receiving a diagnosis of an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) has a major impact on an individual and his or her family (Crane). Early prevention and identification of children with Autism is extremely important and a key element of treatment (Kirk, pg. 147). Early prevention allows children with Autism Spectrum Disorder to make significant gains and affords an early opportunity to begin therapy in language functioning and improvement in peer relationships (Kirk, pg. 147). There are several strategies that I would recommend that will be effective in improving social skills, behavior, and communication. Augmentative and Alternative communication (AAC) and assisted technology, not only improves speech, but provides ways to communicate the needs of the child and can prevent the development of non adaptive child behavior (Kirk, pg. 156). Extensive use allows the child with disabilities an opportunity to view pictures displayed on a communication board. By pointing at pictures, students with autism are able to communicate his or her wishes (Kirk, pg. 156). The improvement of communication devices has a favorable effect on controlling or reducing challenging behavior because disruptive behavior is sometimes caused by not being able to communicate their needs and wishes (Kirk, pg. 60). There’s also software being developed to help teach social skills. Another educational strategy I would recommend, which is a way to cope with behavior manifestations of autism, is known as functional behavior assessment (Kirk).
Functional behavior assessments do not focus on the behavior of the child but focuses on the meaning behind the behavior. Functional behavior assessment is also known as the ABC approach (Kirk). The A (Antecedents) stands for what preceded the behavior, B (Behavior) stands for the nature of the event, and C (Consequence) stands for what happens as a result of the behavior (Kirk). This strategy assesses the behavior, what the child will benefit from the behavior, and whether it is a form of communication. Once the team understands the reason behind the behavior, positive strategies are developed to teach the child positive alternative for attaining his goal. Every student with a disability will have an Individualized Educational Plan. A team of educators, specialists, administrators, and the parents will design an education plan to ensure that the child will receive services, accommodations, and modifications needed to be successful in the classroom as well in society after high school. I think that it is extremely important for students with disabilities to remain in the general education classroom also known as “Inclusion”. Academic lessons are designed for the child with autism and lessons can be short and not complex to ensure progress and success in appropriate tasks. I also think that students with autism would benefit from small group work.
The IEP would also include special plan for improving social skills and language development as well as specific strategies to cope with behavior. Creating structure is another successful strategy. The desire for structure among children with disabilities can be met by visual representations (Kirk, pg. 157). Creating a consistent physical environment and daily schedule ensures security. Consistency is key for academic successful for students with disabilities. Part 4: Conclusion—Reflection and Discussion Interviewing Dondrea and listening to him talk about Kendall with so much regard to doing what is best for her and making sure that she is able to communicate and receive an appropriate education by receiving the necessary accommodations was touching. As a parent, we want to be able to provide the best for our children. We also want to make sure that they have everything they need to be successful. So, it was difficult to hear him talk about how hopeless he felt at times; he wishes that he could do more to help Kendall. He told me that his doctor were glad that they noticed the signs and that they followed up with their doctor.
Early prevention and identification allowed them to get a head start on learning how to communicate with their daughter and understand her needs and have her communicate with them. As a parent of a child with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) it was extremely difficult to me to come to terms that my child needs additional help to be successful in the classroom. I also thought that I was the blame of why my child had developed both disorders. I felt overwhelmed with all of the information and acronyms that were being thrown at me during the 504 meeting. I had little knowledge about either disorders so I felt vulnerable, confused, and stressed. After talking with my child’s pediatrician and other supportive resources, I was able to educate my husband and other children about my son’s condition. I felt comfortable at the next 504 meeting because I was prepared. I think that it was wonderful that Kendall’s condition was caught early. Early prevention and identification is crucial. As an administrator, I have participated in many Individualized Educational Plan meeting to develop, write, and implement academic goals and accommodations and/or modifications for the child with disabilities. I have witnessed frustration from parents and teachers and parents in denial that their child needs special accommodations to be academically successful in the classroom.
When I encounter parents, I do suggest that they become familiar with their child’s condition and understand that the IEP is to only help the child progress in the classroom, socially and academically. I do suggest that they ask questions and make suggestions pertaining to the annual goals that are being written. I also stress to them how important their involvement is. This interview made me realize that parents of children with disabilities have a special connection or bond with each other. We all have felt some type of guilt about the conditions that develop beyond our power. We are all uniquely made and have a special purpose in this world. We all have difficult storms and seasons that we go through, but in the end, we come out victorious and possess a testimony to share to empower, inspire, and uplift others who may going through the same thing. 2 Corinthians 12:9-10 “But he said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness”. Therefore I will boast all the more gladly about my weaknesses, so that Christ’s power may rest on me. 10 That is why, for Christ’s sake, I delight in weaknesses, in insults, in hardships, in persecutions, in difficulties. For when I am weak, then I am strong. This verse is truly uplifting when we are overwhelmed with making sure we are making the right decisions for our children. We must be their voice.
Cite this page
Autism Research. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Autism in America
“Its not who you are underneath its what you do that defines you.” This quote from Rachel Dawes in Christopher Nolan’s Batman series defines Bruce Wayne for the rest of the series. Autism Spectrum Disorder is also something that is a defining factor of life for many children. Autism Spectrum Disorder is a developmental disorder, that causes social, behavioral, and communication challenges. This is caused by the lack of medical knowledge up until the recent decades. People who were on the low functioning end of the spectrum in the past they were treated horribly and locked away like lab animals. There are people who believe Autism Spectrum Disorder developed when children were given vaccines, and people also believe that Autism Spectrum disorder stems from the changes in food. However, people with Autism Spectrum Disorder have always existed in America, but they only started to become more prevalent in recent centuries.
In America during the early nineteenth century people who had Autism Spectrum Disorder were looked down upon. They were treated horribly and segregated from the rest of humanity. John Donovan and Caren Zucker authors of “Autism in Early America” mention, “Howe was appalled by the horrifying conditions in which many "idiots" lived -- crammed into almshouses, kept in cages, left to wander unwashed and uncared for (Donovan et. Al).” This example was not uncommon for people on the Autism spectrum. Since the people that lived here were not well taken care of and left to their own devices this was a large reason as to why Autism went underdiagnosed during the nineteenth century. Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe was the lead on changing the way the United States of America viewed Autistic people. He worked for better treatment of these people which helped to lead a cultural shift in society. Dr. Howe when developing his diagnosis of Autism looked for the root cause of intellectual disability. In the later part of the nineteenth century he went to the state legislature to ask for fund for a school to prove people that were so called “idiots” could be educated. His work at the school was successful enough that the legislature gave him money to open a second school. After these schools opened several more opened after providing education to people who were Autistic or “idiots.” Sadly, Howe’s institutions fell victim to two problems. First, they were provided education, but it was not the quality of education that people who do not have disabilities were provided. Second during the twentieth century many of the schools fell into disarray and were shut down since no one kept up with them. Dr. Howe’s efforts finally paid off in 1991. A law was passed creating federal rights for students who have Autism Spectrum Disorder.
In 1991 under president George H. W. Bush a law was passed making it so that students who had disabilities have the federal right to be in the same schools as everyone else. The reason this law was created and passed was for the purpose of bringing students with disabilities out of separate schools and into public schools. Jackie Jones in the article states, “DASP provides professional development and technical assistance to make the postsecondary experience more accessible to autistic students, … (Jackie Jones).” DASP is a program that was able to be created because of the law passed by George H. W. Bush. This program at the time of the article’s publishing was three years old. It has helped students at university ease into college life; and this has made socialization a bit easier for them. The work in this program also provides technologies that are adapted to the needs of the university’s Autistic students. DASP also provides a sense of community for the special needs students who may feel like they are the only ones that have Autism Spectrum Disorder. Research on this matter has continued since the start of this program as we look towards the future on how to treat Autism Spectrum Disorder.
Around this time in the 90s Autism Spectrum Disorder started to rise in numbers. People started to have more vaccinations and food started to change. As people who started research and said that autism only started to develop out of these changes in food and the increase of vaccinations.
Research has been done over the last 150 years and we have learned a lot but still have much more to do. The medical community knows only a little more than we did during the nineteenth century. Research that has been done since then has now given us signs of what to look for in children. The article argues, “With growing numbers of families across the country affected by autism spectrum disorder -- over all one in 88 children will be diagnosed with A.S.D., and one in 54 boys … (“Study Suggests More Services Needed for Young Adults.”)” Now that the medical community has guidelines of how to diagnose Autism. It may have led to another problem being an over diagnosis of the developmental disorder. Overdiagnosis is a problem because the guidelines become blurry again making it harder to diagnose. A problem that stems off overdiagnosis is that people who really need the help will not get covered by insurance and the Special Education portions of schools do not get proper funding. People’s attitude towards Autism have become more positive. Although there are still some people who are not quite as accepting of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Churches and parishes have started to provide programs, but most are not willing to put the extra step forward to help these families. As we go further ahead in time, we hope to gain better treatment for people and families that have been affected by Autism Spectrum Disorder.
Autism has defined the lives of many people over the years. The lives of people that were Autistic in the nineteenth century were horrid. They were isolated into almshouses and left in horrendous conditions and they were labeled as “idiots”. This led to Autism being under diagnosed for several years. In 1991 president George H. W. Bush passed a law that created federal rights for all students that have disabilities to be in the same schools as students without disabilities. As people with Autism and the medical community look to the future, they look to gain more knowledge about the developmental disorder and for people to become even more accepting of the disorder. There has also become an overdiagnosis which has led to problems for people that need help and can not get it because of insurance companies not wanting to cover those needs. In conclusion people that have Autism Spectrum Disorder since the nineteenth century have been treated differently over the years from animals in the past to now being given equal treatment and education as other students who are not disabled.
Works Cited
Donovan, John and Caren Zucker. “Autism in Early America.” Smithsonian, vol. 46, no. 9, Jan. 2016, pp. 114–121. EBSCOhost, lscsproxy.lonestar.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,cpid&custid=s1088435&db=a9h&AN=112184286&site=ehost-live. Jones Jackie. “Autism in Academia.” Chronicle of Higher Education, vol. 58, 17 Mar. 2012, pp. 38–42. EBSCOhost, lscsproxy.lonestar.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,cpid&custid=s1088435&db=a9h&AN=73825805&site=ehost-live. “Study Suggests More Services Needed for Young Adults.” America, vol. 206, no. 19, June 2012, pp. 6–7. EBSCOhost, lscsproxy.lonestar.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,cpid&custid=s1088435&db=a9h&AN=76247145&site=ehost-live.
Cite this page
Autism in America. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
The Turmoil of Extreme Introvertedness
In this paper, I will have the capacity to specify the turmoil of extreme introvertedness(Autism), a detach issue that impacts the ability of the Brain. It causes issues in such regions as social contact, knowledge, non-standard discourse and talk hindrances, on board stately or rash practices, and also exceptional responses to the condition that a rationally lopsided individual may haven't exactly an equal as people not having extraordinary self preoccupation would appear. I will have the capacity to talk by in regards to the history and depiction of a psychological irregularity, the reason, affected age social affair, signs and angle impacts that stamp an exceptionally thoughtful individual, the general populace Joined Countries office a rationally lopsided individual may go to for helpful encourage and treatment, the genuine treatment that a rationally unequal individual may get, likelihood factors that a rationally uneven individual may skill, in any case you'd asses somebody with a psychological lopsidedness, practices that somebody Joined Countries office envelops a psychological unevenness may partake in, and what is progressively the long run impacts and treatment targets for somebody Joined Countries office incorporates a psychological awkwardness must be constrained to choose to accomplish. I feel that by doing the greater part of this that i'll get an a ton of extraordinary sentiment perception for people with a psychological lopsidedness to raised encourage them on the off likelihood that I must be constrained to ever have the benefit to figure with an exceptionally reflective person. i'll give this data to you by encountering each reason that I really include plot inside the introduction and elucidative what each mean and the way they impact somebody with outrageous contemplation.
For quite a long time, data demonstrates the disorder occurs in four out of ten thousand births. This was bolstered expansive scale studies led among the Assembled Conditions of America and European nation. a few as of late, appraises on the predominance of disorder have run. These appraisals ordinarily grasp those with disorder, Asperger disorder, and PDD. disorder {is also|is to boot} thrice heaps of obviously to possess a control on guys than females. This sex refinement isn't particular to disorder since numerous procedure handicaps have a considerably greater male to female quantitative connection. a few newborn children square measure awfully very surprising from birth. two normal qualities they will show encapsulate angled their withdraw from their parental figure to maintain a strategic distance from physical contact and neglecting to suspect being gotten (i.e., transforming into limp). As newborn children, they are ordinarily aloof or excessively furious infants. An aloof child alludes to at least one Joined Countries office is calm more often than not making nearly nothing, assuming any, requests on his/her folks. Relate in Nursing excessively upset infant alludes, making it impossible to Relate in Nursing kid Joined Countries organization cries a not too bad arrangement, for the most part relentless, all through his/her waking hours. all through outset, babies start to shake or potentially strike their head against objects. a few babies with disorder square measure out and out very surprising from birth. an indistinguishable trademark they'll demonstrate is to keep away from social contact and neglecting to extravagant being expressed up.
As newborn children, they are for the most part portrayed as either aloof or excessively disturbed infants. A latent child might be an infant Joined Countries organization is peaceful more often than not making pretty much nothing, or zero requests on his/her folks. Avery furious infant alludes to a child Joined Countries organization cries a better than average amount, for the most part constant. all through early stages, numerous start to shake as well as slam their head against the den; yet this will be not perpetually the situation. In the initial couple of years of life, some unfit babies achieve process points of reference, such as talking, slithering, and strolling, rich past the basic kid; while others unit extensively postponed. generally half unfit youngsters grow commonly until somewhere close to one 1/2 to 3 years old; at that point unfit manifestations start to rise. These people square measure for the most part talked as having 'backward' disorder. A few people among the circle trust that Candida albicans, inoculations, introduction to an endemic, or the beginning of seizures {is also|is to boot} responsible for this relapse.
It's together suspected that a few kids with 'backward' disorder may have Landau-Kleffner Disorder Amid adolescence, unfit youngsters may fall behind their same-matured companions among the territories of correspondence, social abilities, and mental component. to boot, useless practices may start to show up, similar to self-stimulatory practices (i.e., dreary, non-objective coordinated conduct, such as shaking, hand-fluttering), self-damage (e.g., hand-gnawing, headbanging), dozing and utilization issues, poor eye to eye connection, unfitness to torment, hyper-/hypo-action, and consideration deficiencies. One trademark that is type of basic in disorder is that the person's 'emphasis on equivalence's or 'perseverative' conduct. numerous youngsters turn out to be excessively unshakable on schedules; on the off chance that one is changed, even somewhat, the tyke may wind up miracle and choler. Some basic cases are: drinking as well as utilization a similar sustenance things at each dinner, brandishing certain article of vesture or request that others wear a similar garments, and getting the chance to class abuse a similar course.
One achievable explanation behind 'emphasis on equivalence's is furthermore the individual's failure to know and modify novel things. Mentally unbalanced people by and large have downside with the change to time of life. approximately twenty fifth have seizures out of the blue all through time of life which may result to discharge changes. furthermore, numerous conduct issues can turn out to be further continuous and additional extreme all through this time. Notwithstanding, others encounter time of existence without hardly lifting a finger. In refinement to twenty years past once numerous unfit people were systematized, there unit by and by numerous flexible living game plans. Generally, just the preeminent serious people rest in establishments. In adulthood, a few people with disorder live gathering with their folks; some rest in private offices; some live semi-autonomously, (for example, in Relate in Nursing amazingly group home); et al. live severally. There square measure unfit grown-ups Joined Countries organization move on from school and get graduate degrees; and various create grown-up connections and will wed. among the work environment, numerous unfit grown-ups square measure normally dependable and scrupulous staff. tragically, these people may have downside getting work.
Since huge numbers of them unit socially ungainly and will have all the earmarks of being 'flighty' or 'extraordinary,' they for the most part have downside with the work meet. there's no descriptive word which can be acclimated legitimize each type of character with disorder in view of the very certainty there square measure a few sorts of this evil. for instance, a few people square measure hostile to social, various square measure asocial, et al. square measure social. some square measure aggressive towards themselves or potentially focused towards others. pretty much [*fr1] have little dialect, various rehash (or reverberate) phrases or potentially expresses, et al. may likewise have ordinary dialect abilities. for the clarification that there aren't any physiological exams straight away to pick regardless of whether somebody has disorder, the guess of disorder is given once Relate in Nursing character shows assortment of trademark behaviors.in the last 5 years, examination has demonstrated that a great deal of those that move in unfit practices have associated however colossal issues. those comprise of: Asperger Disorder, Delicate X Disorder, Landau-Kleffner Disorder, Rett Disorder, and Williams disorder.
Asperger Disorder is characterized by abuse concrete and strict reasoning, fixation on bound themes, breathtaking memories, and being 'flighty.' those individuals square measure thought of over the top working and square measure equipped for holding a technique and of living severally. Delicate X Disorder might be a kind of gradualness amid which the long arm at the X chromosome is tightened. as to day of people with Delicate X Disorder sing their own commendations unfit practices. those practices incorporate: put off in discourse/dialect, steamed, negative eye to eye connection, and hand-fluttering. the main part of those individuals include at a direct to delicate degree.
As they develop, their exact physical facial abilities may likewise turn into a great deal of recognized (e.g., prolonged face and ears), and that they can build coronary heart issues. people with Landau-Kleffner Disorder conjointly grandstand a few unfit practices, along the edge of social withdrawal, emphasis on equality, and dialect issues. those individuals square measure frequently thought of as having 'backward' disorder because of they appear like conventional till some time or another among ages 3 and seven. they regularly have entrancing dialect skills in early adolescence yet a tiny bit at a time lose their capacity to talk. they even have abnormal personality wave designs which may be analyzed by abuse Relate in Nursingalyzing their EEG design for the length of a drawn out rest amount.Rett Disorder might be a confusion that effects essentially women and customarily creates between 1/2 to no less than one half years more established. assortment of their work practices envelop: loss of discourse, dreary hand-wringing, body shaking, and social withdrawal. those individuals influenced by this issue might be fundamentally to profoundly individuals. Williams disorder is characterized by means of differed unfit practices alongside: natural process and dialect delays, sound affectability, intrigue shortages, and social issues. when contrasted with a few unfit people, those with Williams disorder square measure quite agreeable and have coronary heart issues. despite the fact that there's no perceived particular explanation for disorder, there is creating verification that disorder might be as a consequences of Partner in Nursing.
Cite this page
The Turmoil of Extreme Introvertedness. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
What Can Autism Look Like and Things you Can do to Spot it
While reading this paper, I believe the author’s purpose is to show people what can autism look like and things you can do to spot it. The author wants to make people aware and how they can test to see if their child has autism. Because many parents wait until it's too late to find out and that means their child has to catch up to better their development. With these studies the author wants to show how we can test for autism at a young age. The author does this by comparing kids with autism and kids without. The questions that you need to know is what is being done to help diagnosed kids with autism sooner. The information you need to answer this question is looking at your child’s social and emotional development. Also looking at their language development. Once you take the time to look at that, then you can see if your child is delayed in any way. Some people say there is no way to tell and that they are just still learning. The problem with that is that some kids have autism and need help earlier than others. I know once they get this help it will not fix them but it can at lease help then grow developmentally. They are wondering if looking at this thing can really help their child. Answer is yes.
Also people are assuming that once they get older everything should be fine. Which wrong they need to get ahead of this right away. The main point of view is from the researchers. They are trying to see the difference can be with kids who are developing normal and kids who are slower with their development. While reading this article I realized that they signs for autism need to be show more. That if parents knew the signs then they could get their child help faster. The consequences can lead to your child being less developed then other children. This research can also help kids from all over. Since they are doing research with kids at an early age then people will be able to tell what is going on with their child.The purpose of this article is to tell people about autism spectrum disorder. The author is showing the people statics on how many people have ASD in our world. They also give signs to tell if your child have autism. What signs or behavior are common with autism? Once found how can I help? These questions are critical because then we can help identify kids when autism is in it is in the early stages. Then we can learn to get help faster. We can also do research on the topic and see where we should send are children for the best development help. We really need to understand what children are going through and how to help them.
Ways we can tell is how do they act and if they have a developmentally delays. Than if we look at the different stages with cognitive development. Then we can see where the child is and where they should be. People just assume that since there kids are so young that’s the reason why they are not fully developed yet. Which could be true but most of the time it's because they have some sort of disability. When I read about this topic I am thinking every parents knows this stuff. But in reality parents actually have no clue what signs to look for, let alone what autism. The point of view comes from people who are concerned for kids with autism. Since people know so little of this topic and how there brain develops different from a normal developing brain. I also think the people's view who are not included are parent who know all of this stuff. Since they already know what to do and have already done something about it. I enjoyed reading this because it gives you some many facts about autism that I didn't even know. So if you read this article it can help you understand. I honestly do not see any problems with finding out more information on this topic.
Cite this page
What Can Autism Look Like and Things You Can Do To Spot It. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
The History of Autism Spectrum Disorder
The Autism Spectrum Disorder has recently become the most prominent disease in children, located in the United States (329). This disorder unlike any other is not curable. Many scientists and researchers have been on the hunt to find the link or the cause of the autism spectrum disorder. While searching for a direct solution to the disorder, licensed officials have studied the development, characteristics, and function of the brain in autistic children. In the effort of conducting multiple of tests and assignments, researchers found that high- functioning autism spectrum disorder are closely correlated to an effective creative thought processing.
Autism Spectrum Disorder is a common disorder that damages childhood progression, causing difficulty in response and social engagement within children. A child who is diagnosed with autism would demonstrate few specific characteristics such as repetition, no direct contact, late response and rocking motion. The disorder cannot be learned or generated from an environmental source. Currently, there is no cure for autism, Researchers believe that autism is formed from genetic makeup and takes place in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex portion of the brain. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex which is responsible for emotions and social interactions, so when Scientist compared an autistic child brain to a child who was absent to the disorder, they noticed that there was a difference in communication and imagination skills. (This theory alone does not cause autism).
Autism Spectrum Disorder was discovered in the early 1940s by an American Psychiatrist, Leo Kanner (82). During this time many researchers was unaware of how to diagnose autism since they were unsure what caused the disorder. The most common symptoms that are associated with the disorder include Lack of emotional and social cues, constant repetitive actions, rocking motion, and late responses. Psychologists who were not knowledgeable of the behavior labeled it as a form of retardation. After the failure of the Psychoanalytic Therapy, Physicians and Psychologists were skeptical of treating the diagnosed children with the prescribed medication because it presented harsh implications.
It wasn’t until the late 1960s when researchers began to realize that autistic children were capable of learning, but most effectively through operant conditioning methods. With the growth of neurogenic evidence, it is known that ASD is caused by genetic error located in the brain synapse. The regions that are closely related to autism symptoms is the amygdala, cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and mirror neurons. An extended laboratory evidence that proved that the synaptogenesis is current in regions which are involved in performing specific reinforced responses. The link between synaptogenesis deficit and the lack of neurons make it almost impossible to overcome strong disorderly behavioral reactions in children. This information has provided researchers with a knowledgeable base of autism and how it affects some individual differently.
A creativity assignment test measured was given to two groups. The first group was the autistic children and the second group was the neurotypical children. The test specifically measured three key components in autistic children and neurotypical children. The three components were fluency of ideas, flexibility, and originality. Once the test was over and the scores were calculated, it was shown that the first group of children performed at a much higher rate than the second group. Creativity test is different among adults and children because a typical child cannot think as challenging as an adult. The same method should apply to autistic children. A low functioning creative test given to an autistic child would result in a lower performance. To test the creativity with the ASD, the test given should demonstrate abstract and unusual assessments (319).
ASD in children are usually overlooked or forgotten about due to the response that are effected by of their disorder. Many of studies have proven that ASD is not a disability nor incompetence. With their creative mindsets and high performance in technology, the Autism Spectrum Disorder can be classified as a strength rather than a flaw.
Cite this page
The History of Autism Spectrum Disorder. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Autism Disorder
Introduction
Autism is a disease described by the fact that it is exposed to a bountiful of challenges through civil communications, cooperation, and limited thoughts and actions . It is a neurological disorder that can alter a person's brain in its behavior. This disease is always a immaturity disorder in which a child is in its own world. Distinguish a child from an moderate person who does not have the disease.
For countless of years no-one has been capable of determining the causes of autism. Scientists in the medical world have their own hypotheses and ideas about the disease. But everyone has mixed opinions about it. Many consider that the origin could come from genetics. Also many consider that it is not from the surroundings or from bad schooling.
Scientists have conducted many studies and will do more in the coming years. Most autism is unidentified, but it is considered to be produced by biological factors. But in many families, there seems to be a arrangement of autism supporting the approving that it might be a genetic basis. It also shows that a few infants might be born with autism susceptibility.
People with autism may find it difficult to express their feelings, read social cues, handle sensory information and handle a routine. They can also move their bodies in strange and unusual ways. For example they flap their hands and other weird gestures. Many things could also disturb them, such as bright lights, loud noises and crowded squares.
If parents suspect something wrong with their kids. They take them to doctors to check if their child may have been diagnosed with autism. And if they have been diagnosed, they take them to speech therapists, psychologists, occupational therapists, and special education teachers. But there is still no antidote for autism but, getting some cure will make a huge difference with how the child acts.
It's very challenging for people with autism to make friends. Because they are different from other children, they are usually teased and bullied throughout their lives. And if they're teased or bullied, you should stand up for them. When dealing with them, you have to be patient and kind. Also by speaking clearly and explaining things to them if they don’t understand.
Facts
It has been determined by countless debates that autism is the most rapid growing disorder. About two to six infants out of a thousand can be recognized with autism. And it generally develops between one and three year olds. Even though it is the most growing disorder, it is also the most confusing disorder that many questions have not been answered yet.
Evidence of autism can range in bounteous different ways. From relationships, body language, and facial expressions. These symptoms include lack when learning, problems with starting something new, repeating of words, and difficulty understanding what someone is saying. Also 40% of people with autism never speak.
Autism is four times more likely to be diagnosed to boys than girls. Because of the genetics and because of the symptoms displayed by boys. Besides that, the risk of autism is more likely if the parents are older. Especially for mothers over 30 giving birth because the developing of ASD rises rapidly with a woman's age.
Cite this page
Autism Disorder. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Autism Spectrum Disorder during Adolescence
Adolescence is a challenging part of growing up . From entering high school , to hitting puberty, every teen goes through their own struggles during adolescence. Teens with Autism , have to encounter the same situations as other teens, from handling a ton of homework, to figuring out which friends to hang out with.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) , is a neurodevelopmental disorder that impairs the ability to socialize, and interact with others. Autism is a lifelong condition, that is most often detected in early childhood. ASD affects the nervous system , and while there is no exact answer as to what causes ASD , scientists believe it is due to a faulty gene passed onto the child , in early fetal development. There are other theories on what causes ASD , such as viruses the mother encountered, and chemical imbalances. When a person is diagnosed with Autism, they are placed on a spectrum , the “A Spectrum” , determines whether the person is High functioning, meaning their cognitive skills are not challenged, as much as a person a person who is considered low functioning . Low functioning Autism , is the most severe end of the spectrum. A person with low Functioning Autism has severe impairments to their cognitive skills. The main difference that separates where a person lands on the spectrum , is based off their cognitive skills , and their IQ level. Everyones body changes during Puberty , and while most neurotypical teens are excited to experience this stage in their life , teens with Autism are most often alarmed , and upset, by the sudden changes to their lives . Puberty brings on many obstacles in a teenagers life, from having your body go through changes , not only physically , but also emotionally. Change is often a problem for autistic teenagers , because they are accustomed to a set schedule , and routine .
Having a set routine, helps Autistic individuals create a stable order in their lives. While a neurotypical teenagers can deal with the morning rush of getting ready and heading off to school in a rush, an Autistic teenager will become overwhelmed by the interruption in their set order . When an Autistic individual relies on a set routine, it helps motivate them to follow through with tasks , which helps them deal with tasks such as doing their chores, or focusing on their homework. When that routine is interrupted , it upsets, overwhelms , and agitates people with autism, which makes it harder for them to get through their day with a positive mindset. Small things like having to pick up dinner last minute , because mom did not have time to finish the dinner she planned for the family that specific night, is just one thing that can upset a person with Autism. Having to know what is for dinner during the week, or what socks to wear with a specific outfit , even having to wear blue sneakers on Tuesday , are all examples of mannerisms that people with Autism do to help manage anxiety, and ADHD, because it helps decrease their impulsivity, and aggression . When a neurotypical individual has their schedule messed up , it also upsets, and agitates them, but they are faster to comprehend that they can still go throughout the day , even though it did not go exactly as planned , while an autistic person will most often become thrown off for the rest of their day.
Making friends , and meeting people that you are attracted to are all parts of being a teenager, and trying to fit in , is one of the biggest struggles every single person encounters in high school. While trying to find friends that are genuine , and accept you can be hard , but it is even harder when someone has trouble understanding social cues . Studies show that students with autism are more likely to be excluded by their peers , because students do not typically reach out to introverted people, and they are less likely to talk to people outside of their friend group. Autistic teens have trouble finding friends, because they have a harder time picking up on social cues, and they typically refrain from reaching out to their peers, because they do not know how to communicate with them.
Neurotypical individuals generally have an easier time making friends, and fitting in, because they have an easier time understanding social cues such as “kidding around”(Joking), or sarcasm. Going to the movies, football games, parties, and hanging out late at night at a fast food restaurant , are all things teenagers enjoy doing with the little bit of freedom their parents give them . Some Teenagers also look forward to sneaking around behind their parents backs to go to a party that their crush is throwing. These are all things that Autistic teenagers do not typically get to encounter, because they do not handle large crowds well (Due to loud noises and large groups of people, it becomes scary and overwhelming), they like to stay in a comfortable “zone” that includes following their routines, which include mom and dad's house rules.Because Autistic individuals have a tough time comprehending cognitive skills, they may not understand why some teenagers laugh ,and smile when they are in class raving about the party they got drunk at saturday night , or going out passed curfew on friday night to drink your first beer with your friends.
People with Autism, want to be treated just like everyone else, and they want to genuinely feel included by their peers. Just because a person is Autistic , does not mean that they cannot hang out with their friends, join the schools sports team, or go on a date with the person that they like. It is important to remember that everyone on the spectrum is different , so telling an autistic person something like, “ my friends brother has Autism” , is not a very good conversation starter , because every person on the spectrum is vastly different from the next.
Works Cited
Sarris, M. (2013, July 23). Autism in the Teen Years: What to Expect, How to Help. Retrieved from https://iancommunity.org/cs/simons_simplex_community/autism_in_teens Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). (2018, May 03). Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/facts.html Hurst, M. (n.d.). Teenagers With Autism: Symptoms, Treatment, & Help. Retrieved November 1, 2018, from https://www.crchealth.com/troubled-teenagers/autism-in-teenagers/
Cite this page
Autism Spectrum Disorder During Adolescence. (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
GMO and Novel “Frankenstein”
In the novel Frankenstein, Mary Shelley infers that caution must be taken when practicing science and tampering with nature. Even though the book was published in the early nineteenth century it predicted a lot about what occurs in science today. Science has come so far since the 19th century. Innovations in technology, science, medicine, etc. have shaped the way humans function today. Scientists have always been pushing the limits of scientific discovery.
A genetically modified organism (commonly referred to as GMOs) is an organism that has had its genome changed or altered by genetic engineering. Many countries have made the switch to using GMOs instead of growing everything organically. The United States has been doing this since 1994. Producing and consuming GM food can be hazardous to the environment and one’s own body.
GMOs can be seriously dangerous to your health. An example of this is that a type of modified corn was never intended for human consumption but actually for pig feed. According to certain studies this type of corn has been linked to liver and kidney problems. Some people might also be allergic to GMOs and not even know it since most companies don’t specify they use GMOs They allergies can range from mild symptoms to more serious side effects.“Food allergies are a growing problem in the United States...Some people believe that spike is linked to GM foods” (GMOs: Pros and Cons). Some people can even be seriously allergic to GMOs. GMOs also affect our environment, they are often tested on animals and they alter the way the course of nature works, by contributing to antibiotic resistance. The only benefit of GM food is that it is much easier to produce because the seeds are manipulated to grow larger at a faster rate.
Genetic engineering is the process of altering the structure and nature of genes in human beings and animals. The purpose is to modify DNA in order to benefit an organism. Although it has numerous benefits, people still fear it can change nature. Genetic engineering may increase life span, lower the risk of genetic disease, and make children stronger, smarter, and healthier. It is indeed altering science and nature, though. It also gives the chance of having a genetic engineer make a life-altering, irreversible mistake affecting a person for the rest of their life. The monster explains, “Nothing is so painful to the human mind as a great and sudden change” (Shelly 167). This heavily relates to genetic engineering because many fear genetic engineering and are not ready for change. It scares a lot of people, even though it has done a lot for families who have dangerous genes they don’t want to pass onto their children.
The production of GM foods and genetic engineering can relate to the novel, Frankenstein. GMOs affect the way nature changes people's’ food and genetic engineering affects people's DNA. Similarly, Dr. Victor Frankenstein affects the way human beings are created and how they look and interact with the world. The monster elucidates, “Life, although it may only be an accumulation of anguish, is dear to me, and I will defend it” (Shelly 114). This is insight on how The Monster feels. In turn this relates to GM food because it shows how messing with nature can have serious consequences and can affect the environment and other people.
Cite this page
GMO and novel "Frankenstein". (2019, Feb 14).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
The Possible Impacts of Climate Change on Food Insecurity
Research Question / Hypothesis
H0 = there is no statically significant linear model that can predict food insecurity in both least developed and developed countries as the result of the global climate change.
Ha = there is a statically significant linear model that can predict food insecurity in both least developed and developed countries as the result of the global climate change.
Is the slope significantly different than 0? (t-test)
- Ho = b1=0, b2 = 0, b3 = 0
- Ha = b1?0, b2 ? 0, b3 ? 0
METHOD
To examine the relationship between food insecurity and the exposure to disasters (floods, droughts, and extreme weather events), thirty countries have been randomly selected. For this experiment, food insecurity is viewed as the effects of which floods, droughts, and extreme weather events that each country may experience over the course one year—2009. The percentage of droughts, floods, and extreme weather recorded in percentage is used to predict the food insecurity that each country was reported by FAO (2014). Dataset for both variables are from the same year of 2009.
This paper intends to make analysis on the global exposure of climate change in 30 countries using the percentage of droughts, floods and extreme weather events under the effects of climatic conditions. A dataset of 30 countries for the percentage of flood, droughts, and extreme events were combined with a national food insecure in 2009. To run this analysis, two continuous variables are used, these variables are (1). Food insecurity people experience in each country (in percentage) which is the dependent variable; (2). The predictor (IV) – percentage of population that experiences droughts, floods, and extreme weather events.
Results
After running a simple linear regression, the overall measure shows an association reflecting in this model, the dependent variable (food insecurity) could be explained by the independent variable (IV-- the percentage of population experienced droughts, floods, and extreme temperatures). According to the model summary (figure 1), R-Squared value indicates that the correlation between the observed and predicted values of food security is 27.8%. My model explained 27.8% of the variability of food insecurity.
The F statistic (figure 2) was greater than one. A statistically significant model was built to predict the level of food insecurity in a country using the percentage of population experience droughts, floods, or extreme temperature. There is a linear model to predict the level of food insecurity in a country based on the percentage of population experience droughts, floods, or extreme temperature. My model explains more variance than it leaves unexplained and is statistically significantly better than the mean at explaining the amount of lead in the park’s soil based on its distance from the road. F(dfM, dfR) = F (1, 28) = 2.345, p 0.05.
Discussion/ Analysis
The values of the gradient and intercept shows that the slope (b1 = -0.515) is significantly different from 0 (t=.1531, p
Cite this page
The Possible Impacts of Climate Change on Food Insecurity. (2019, Feb 13).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Federalism Research Paper
Abstract
Federalism is a political system through which two or more governments have shared authority over the same geographical area. Most democratic countries in the world are governed by a federal system, including Canada, the U.S., Australia, India and Argentina. Federal systems are often governed by a Congress, with a President or a Parliament with a Prime Minister. All federal systems have a central government, a Constitution and a certain procedure that must be followed to resolve any disputes. Federalism has an impact on public budgeting and impacts the spending of public budget as will be discussed within the countries of the United States of America, Israel, and Turkey.
Federalism Research Paper
Federalism is a political system through which two or more governments have shared authority over the same geographical area (AskHON, 2018). Most democratic countries in the world are governed by a federal system, including Canada, the U.S., Australia, India and Argentina (AskHON, 2018). Federal systems are often governed by a Congress, with a President or a Parliament with a Prime Minister (AskHON, 2018). All federal systems have a central government, a Constitution and a certain procedure that must be followed to resolve any disputes (AskHON, 2018). The Constitution serves as a guideline, which the different constituent entities use to check on one another (AskHON, 2018). The Articles of Confederation originally established the United States as a confederation, where each of the states operated separately and independently from one another (Study.com, 2018). The United States Constitution set up our current federal government and replaced the Articles of Confederation (Study.com, 2018). The Constitution recognizes the federal government as the highest governmental power (Study.com, 2018).
United States of America
The United States Constitution replaced the Articles of Confederation. The Constitution recognizes the federal government as the highest governmental power (Study.com, 2018). The Constitution expressly grants broad powers to the federal government but not to the states (Study.com, 2018). The Constitution stresses what the states can't do. The Bill of Rights tempers some of the imbalance concerning the states’ rights (Study.com, 2018). The Tenth Amendment gives the states all powers not delegated to the national government or denied to the states (Study.com, 2018).
Impact on constitutionally limited federal government. Madison’s concept of limited government maintained that the powers of the government should be limited internally by the Constitution itself but externally by the American people through the representative electoral process (Longley, 2017). The Ninth Amendment and the Tenth Amendment define the process of limited government as practiced in the United States (Longley, 2017). The Tenth Amendment defines the individual and shared powers of the U.S. government and the state governments forming the American version of federalism (Longley, 2017). The U.S. Constitution provides that Congress shall have the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the various states (Thomas, 2013). Congress has the power under the Spending Clause to require states to undertake certain activities as a condition of receiving federal monies (Thomas, 2013).
Impact on public budgeting. Congress has broad financial powers, including the power to tax and spend in order to pay debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States (Thomas, 2013). Congress also has the power to borrow money and to appropriate money from the United States Treasury (Thomas, 2013). The purposes for which Congress may tax and spend are very broad and are not limited by the scope of other enumerated powers under which Congress may regulate (Thomas, 2013).
Impact spending of public budgeting. One of the more significant ways that the federal government can encourage state behavior is to impose conditions on the receipt of federal monies by the states (Thomas, 2013). Considering the large number of funds provided to states by the federal government, this represents a significant power for Congress to exercise (Thomas, 2013).
Israel
Federalism has strong roots in the Judaic tradition of "brit" or covenant (Mollov, 2018). The idea of covenant which is rooted in Judaism is considered to be the main organizing principle around which the "outlook of all Biblically rooted traditions" and the "worldview of the Bible" are built (Mollov, 2018). The aspects of federal relationships are reflected in the Hebraic idea of covenant and are expressed in both social as well as political terms: "the covenant relationship is to social and political life what Buber's I-Thou relationship is to personal life. Through covenants humans and their institutions are entered into dialogue and are given a framework for dialogue" (Mollov, 2018). Aspects of federalism which have their origins in fundamentally Judaic concepts were well-suited to deal with elements of Israel's current reality (Mollov, 2018). In this society of subgroups, a need for inter-group dialogue has increased. This is a reversal of the expectation of Israel's founders that the country would adopt a more uniform image of the "new Israeli" as different cultural subgroups would merge into one (Mollov, 2018).
Impact on constitutionally limited federal government. In Israel the prime factor explaining the formation of federal factions is the joint desire of two or more parties to increase their political and electoral effectiveness by combining forces (Wittes, 2018). Israeli cultural politics need not be a zero-sum game, imposing the values of one community over others (Wittes, 2018). Solutions are to be found in countries like the United States, Switzerland, India and Spain. Just as U.S. states provide a framework for playing out America’s “culture wars” on a sub-national level, Israel’s cultural regions could create a more livable status quo (Wittes, 2018). While the U.S. may dwarf Israel’s population and landmass, the U.S. cultural chasms are more varied (Wittes, 2018). And just as the Swiss cantons afford their residents a high degree of autonomy in such areas as education, health and personal-status issues (including marriage), so should and can Israel’s (Wittes, 2018). Any two-state solution requires execution and tough decisions by leaders in both communities (Wittes, 2018).
Impact on public budgeting. Israel has a modern market economy with a thriving high-technology sector that attracts considerable foreign investment (heritage.org, 2018). The discovery of large offshore natural gas deposits has improved its energy security and balance-of-payments prospects (heritage.org, 2018). Despite the 2006 war against Hezbollah in Lebanon and the 2008–2009, 2012, and 2014 wars against Hamas in Gaza, as well as the constant threat of terrorism, Israel’s economy is fundamentally sound and dynamic (heritage.org, 2018). The government plans further economic liberalization, but fiscal consolidation has been deferred in favor of populist spending and tax measures demanded by the governing coalition (heritage.org, 2018). Competitiveness is enhanced by strong protection of property rights, efficient coordination of regulatory processes, and a sound judicial framework that sustains the rule of law (heritage.org, 2018).
Impact spending of public budgeting. Protection of property and contractual rights is effective, and businesses face a low risk of expropriation (heritage.org, 2018). The system for recording secured interests in property is reliable (heritage.org, 2018). Bribery and other forms of corruption are illegal (heritage.org, 2018). A strong societal intolerance for graft is reinforced by frequent investigations of high-level corruption (heritage.org, 2018). Government economic policies are generally sound and conducive to running a business (heritage.org, 2018). Israel is often supportive of start-up businesses, but restrictive trade policies that favor domestic producers and limit competition are a concern (heritage.org, 2018). The highly skilled and well-educated labor force is the economy’s biggest asset (heritage.org, 2018). Israel uses price controls largely to regulate the price of food, but also for products in markets with monopolies such as cement (heritage.org, 2018).
Turkey
Turkey is one of the most centralized countries in Europe (Daventry, 2017). Various countries have presidential systems and almost all have federal mechanisms. Presidential systems can gradually turn into totalitarian regimes with all powers vested in one individual and require regional federations with independent decision-making mechanisms if democracy is to remain sound and healthy (Yahya, 2014). Following its official application for European Union membership, Turkey had to adopt the European Constitution and is bound by it (Yahya, 2014). One of the most contentious articles in that constitution for Turkey is the condition imposing local administrations (Yahya, 2014). Turkey has been implementing a system known as the Development Agencies since 2006 (Yahya, 2014). Under this, Turkey is theoretically divided into eight separate regions and the development agencies to be established will have the broader authority to maintain relations with foreign countries (Yahya, 2014).
Impact on constitutionally limited federal government. Turkey is divided into several regions. There are 81 provinces, and governor of each province answers directly to the ministry of interior. In Ottoman times, Greeks, Armenians and others did not want to live in a Federal State together with Turks. They wanted to build their own states, and exile (or kill) all the Turks that “happen” to be on the wrong side of the boundary they drew (Quora, 2016). The seven regions are at least officially, only geographic regions though they also roughly mark some ideological boundaries and ethnicities (Quora, 2016). The Marmara, Mediterranean and Aegean regions are more liberal than the Central Anatolian and Black Sea regions (Quora, 2016). The East and Southeast Anatolian regions were created in the ’40s in order to reinforce the Turkish Republic (Quora, 2016). If federalism was adopted, inter-communal violence would surge and political instability would prevail (Quora, 2016). It is a Kurdish majority region, with many people wanting greater autonomy and cultural rights (Quora, 2016).
Impact on public budgeting. President Erdogan enacted a massive purge of citizens with any connection to Fethullah Gulen’s movement, resulting in more than 50,000 people imprisoned and the seizure of more than $10 billion of assets from private companies (Caywood, 2018). Turkey’s move toward authoritarian rule has dire economic consequences as an erosion of rule of law generally does not create a climate hospitable to free markets (Caywood, 2018). Immediately following the 2016 attacks, Turkey’s tourism industry found itself in a state of decline with the overall economy slowing to 3.5 percent for the year (Caywood, 2018). The April 2017 referendum vote further solidified the end of Turkish accession discussions, confirming the threat that Turkey’s descent into authoritarianism poses a severe threat to its economy (Caywood, 2018).
Impact spending of public budgeting. The budget bill foresees the revenues and expenditures of the state for the next period and authorizes and permits the executive organ to collect revenues and spending (tbmm.gov, 2018). The budget bill forecasts the expenditures and revenues for the next fiscal year (tbmm.gov, 2018). The fiscal year starts on the first day of January and ends on the last day of December (tbmm.gov, 2018). The budgets of the central government are prepared and executed as the budget of central government, budgets of social security institutions, and budgets of local governments (tbmm.gov, 2018). The budget of central government consists of a general budget, a special budget, and a budget of regulatory and supervisory organs (tbmm.gov, 2018).
Judeo-Christian analysis.
God still holds men accountable for their actions, and that nations still rise or fall according to the righteousness of their people (Fischer, 1998). If one is to understand the story of the United States of America, it is important to have a proper appreciation for its Christian colonial roots (Hall, 2011). Colonists of European descent who settled in the New World were Christians whose constitutions, laws, and practices reflected the influence of Christianity (Hall, 2011). The Declaration of Independence, proclaims: “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” (Hall, 2011). This references “the laws of nature and of nature’s God” and “appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world” and the signers’ “reliance on the protection of divine Providence” (Hall, 2011). Covenantal politics links "people and communities as partners in common tasks," and allows them space to be free (Hall, 2011). The tribes of Israel, for instance, were in a covenantal relationship with one another. They had common purposes, such as to uphold the law of God and provide for national security, but they also had the freedom to live as they chose, provided they lived according to God's law (Hall, 2011). Freedom and diversity are possible because the covenant is based on achieving certain goals (Hall, 2011). Outside of those goals, the covenant does not place any restraints on any of the parties (Hall, 2011).
Conclusion
The strength of federalism lies in its flexibility and adaptability (Elazar, 2018). Federalism seeks to encourage unity and diversity together (Elazar, 2018). Federalism, self-rule/shared rule, involves both structure and process (Elazar, 2018). A federal process must be combined with a federal structure to create a viable federal system or arrangement (Elazar, 2018). A successful federalist process hinges on some sense of partnership among the participating parties based on a commitment to negotiated cooperation on issues and programs (Elazar, 2018). There must be a commitment to open bargaining among all parties to achieve consensus or, at the very least, an accommodation which protects the fundamental integrity of all parties (Elazar, 2018). There are a number of different federal structures successfully functioning in the world today (Elazar, 2018). Many polities combine more than one arrangement and many of these structures can accommodate a multiplicity of needs (Elazar, 2018). What is crucial is that there really be a will to achieve a solution utilizing federal principles, whether it is based on a commitment to federalism or upon interests (Elazar, 2018). Among the factors which must be developed are a commitment to democratic government, a willingness to accept pluralism and power-sharing, an agreement to resolve conflict through negotiation, and finally, a sense of self-restraint in pursuing political goals and in the exercise of power which reaches beyond the other tenets of democratic government to include a commitment to power-sharing (Elazar, 2018).
References
AKBEY, F. (2014). A Drawback in Turkish Budget Classification: Where Have Public Investments Gone? Erciyes Üniversitesi ?ktisadi ve ?dari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 175-202. AskHON. (2018, December 3). What is federalism? Retrieved from History on the Net: https://www.historyonthenet.com/what-is-federalism Caywood, C. (2018, January 23). Turkey: A strikingly familiar tale of a democracy in decline. Retrieved from American Legislative Exchange Council: https://www.alec.org/article/turkey-a-strikingly-familiar-tale-of-a-democracy-in-decline/ Daventry, M. S. (2017, April 13). Confusing Turkish nationalists with federalism. Retrieved from James in Turkey: https://www.jamesinturkey.com/confusing-turkish-nationalists-federalism/ Elazar, D. J. (2018, December 7). Federal/Confederal solutions to the Israeli-Palestinian-Jordanian conflict: Concepts and feasibility. Retrieved from Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs: https://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles/fedconfed-sol.htm Fischer, K. J. (1998). Biblical principals of history and government. Virginia Beach: Robertson School of Government. Hall, M. D. (2011, June 7). Did America have a Christian founding? Retrieved from heritage.org: https://www.heritage.org/political-process/report/did-america-have-christian-founding heritage.org. (2018, December 7). Israel index of economic freedom. Retrieved from heritage.org: https://www.heritage.org/index/country/israel Longley, R. (2017, May 10). What is a constitutionally limited government? Retrieved from Thoughtco: https://www.thoughtco.com/constitutionally-limited-government-4121219 Mollov, M. B. (2018). Federalism and multiculturalism as a vehicle for perception change in Israeli-Jewish society. International Journal of Conflict Management, 144-166 . Quora. (2016, November 22). Why hasn’t Turkey adopted federalism if it is big enough and divided into seven regions? Retrieved from Quora: https://www.quora.com/Why-hasn%E2%80%99t-Turkey-adopted-federalism-if-it-is-big-enough-and-divided-into-seven-regions Study.com. (2018, December 3). What is federalism? Definition & factors of U.S. adoption. Retrieved from Study.com: https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-federalism-definition-factors-of-us-adoption.html tbmm.gov. (2018, December 4). Budgetary process. Retrieved from The Grand National Assembly of Turkey: https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/index.php/EN/yd/icerik/30 Thomas, K. R. (2013). Federalism, state sovereignty, and the constitution: Basis and limits of congressional power. Washington D.C.: Congressional Research Service . Torgovnik, E. (1986). Federal factions and federated host parties in Israel: Some ideological and structural dimensions. Publius, 113-132. Wittes, B. (2018, August 14). Imagining a federalist Israel: Notes toward a disruptive fantasy. Retrieved from Lawfare: https://www.lawfareblog.com/imagining-federalist-israel-notes-toward-disruptive-fantasy Yahya, H. (2014, July 5). Federalism: A path Turkey must avoid. Retrieved from Arab News: https://www.arabnews.com/news/596761
Cite this page
Federalism Research Paper. (2019, Feb 13).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Contrast and Compare the Union Membership of Employment Relations in the UK and the USA
Introduction
According to Rose (2004), the study of the regulation of the utilization relationship between employer and worker, each collectively and separately, and therefore the determination of substantive and procedural problems at industrial, organisation and working place levels. Concerns about how work and employment relationships are regulated, experienced and contested (Williams 2013) can help people find out the inter relations and enlarge utilisations.
Although the study of employment relations focuses on work regulation, the broader economic and social influence on the relative power of capital and labour and the interactions between employers, workers, their collective organizations and the state must also be taken into account (Bamber and Lansbury, 2011).
No matter in which country, North and South, workers, employers and governments have both same and different interests, short term and long term. The different interests must be accommodated and reconciled. International comparisons will definitely bring out and explain where those differences and similarities of national industrial relations systems come from (Eaton 2000).
According to Frege and Kelly (2013), the Comparative Employment Relationship (CER) study must be based on the global economy and its impact on regional, national and sub - national employment relationship regulation.
This report will compare comparative employment relations in the aspect of union membership in USA and UK . It will illustrate the historical and political background of the USA and the UK respectively, the employment relations will be analyzed with the history and policies together. Then, a chart comparison of union membership between the USA and the UK will be illustrated. Some opinions and a conclusion will be given at the end of this report.
The USA
Since the late-nineteenth century, giant industrial enterprises were established with bureaucratized labour management systems and a high-wage system, which is also known as ‘Fordism’ (Frege and Kelly, 2013). Fordism is assembly line mass-production manufacturing for mass consumption, following Taylorist principles (like division of labour, planning, surveillance, and performance related pay). However, it was not the workers getting rich, it was their bosses. Those bosses had made large profits, by paying worker very low wages per hour. In the case of that, industrial workers had created unions to fight for their benefits, which is called labour movement. First, they accomplished the work-free weekends. They fought for reducing their working hours to make time for family relaxation. The most famous one was the Haymarket Riots, happened in Chicago on May 1st , 1886(YouTube, 2019). Child labor was also protected by labour movement. In 1886, unions forbade that kids under 14 were not allowed to be employed. Most of those protests had got results.
Right following the Pre-New Deal Industrial Relations Period (1886-1933), the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 marked the beginning of the New Deal Period (1933-1945). The National Mechanical Recuperation Act of 1933 (NIRA) was a US labour law and consumer law passed by the US Congress to authorize the President to direct industry for reasonable compensation and costs that would fortify financial recuperation. It protected collective bargaining and union organizing rights in the private sector. National Labour Relations Act of 1935 , which is also known as the Wagner Act, had set rules for union organizing, remains in part applicable to modern US employment relations. It set up a lawful right to creat independent unions to deal collectively with their bosses. Closed, union, agency and open shop four agreement types were raised. In 1938, the Fair Labor Standards Act has been enacted. This law established ‘minimum wage,minimum wage, overtime pay, recordkeeping, and child labor standards affecting full-time and part-time workers in the private sector and in Federal, State, and local governments’ (Dol.gov, 2019). In 1930s and 1940s, workers were also able to negotiate health benefits plan from their employers. Compared with the earlier period, the rate of unemployment had decreased and per capita income had grown dramatically faster during the New Deal era. Till nowadays, the union memberships are still undeniable. American live, work, even relax are all changed by the labour movement.
During World War II, National Labour Relations Act of 1935 did not contributed a lot. Instead, it was the War Labour Board that forced employers to recognize unions to ensure the labour rest time. Business Unionism Period (1945-1980) came after World War II. By 1947, employees in numerous northern businesses, involving rubber, steel and metal creation, trucking, mining, autos, and clothing, had shaped solid unions, but somewhere else, in retail exchange, office work, household benefit, and within the South as a entire, unions remained minimal. Business Unionism has established. Labor associations working as ‘businesses’ in which the unions give labourers with an cluster of administrations, involving the transaction of collective haggling understandings, and contract organization in trade for member’s union levy (Devinatz, 2013). According to Freeman and Medoff (1984), Unions and the New Deal state changed USA, raising efficiency and guaranteeing labourers of a reasonable share of efficiency picks up. Within enterprise, unions raised efficiency.
However, Race, gender and region were all limited The New Deal Industrial Relations System seriously. According to Frege and Kelly (2013), The Wagner Act, the Reasonable Labor Guidelines Act and the retirement and unemployment protections arrangements of the Social Security Act unequivocally avoided rural employees, household workers, and the representatives of the little foundations that utilized numerous Southerners, ladies, and African-Americans. Moreover, unions remained some problem in the south of the USA. Though the national legislation had already been extended to employees in South, its impact were still limited by racist and reactionary state officials. According to Friedman et al. (2000), New Deal Legislation actually had coverred many labourers in the region’s booming textile industry, but attempts to unionize foundered on the opposition of local and state officials. Unemployment insurance and Aid to Families having dependent kids in the south were supposed to benefit southern employees, however, local governments, who were in charge of those programme mentioned above, had limited access to workers’ benefits.
Then, Globalisation and Business Unionism Decline Period (1980-1995) had arrived. During this period, threats on both political and economical aspects were considered. For economical aspects, it was already more than 30 years after the World War II, the economy of a large amount of countries had already been recovered and raised up. Globalization is an inexorable historical trend, which has brought unavoidable problems, for instance, outsourcing/competition with cheap labour abroad, union busting consultants. In terms of political threats, Reagan, who is known as the Neoliberal President was elected. Meanwhile, union busting model has been established by Air Traffic Controllers Strike. What was worse, North American Free Trade Agreement exacerbated globalization threat to unions.
After Business Unionism Decline Period, Sweeney Social Movement Unionism Period (1995 – 2009), which is named after a labor leader and served as president of the AFL-CIO from 1995 to 2009, has arrived. Under Sweeney's tenure, Service Employees International Union (SEIU) created speedy gains in membership. The union began the last decade with concerning 625,000 members. however Sweeney began pushing for speedy enlargement into new sectors and base areas. SEIU joined with the National Association of Working Women to prepare workplace staff, and therefore the United Food and Commercial Workers (UFCW) to prepare home staff. The union additionally dramatically swollen its reach among maintenance staff within the health care field and business offices. Sweeney additionally pushed for mergers with variety of different unions, engrossing the National Association of Government Employees (NAGE) and different public worker unions. By 1993, SEIU had over a meg members. it had been the primary federation union to succeed in the million-member mark in additional than twenty years. It additionally advocated for legally-mandated paid family leave, health care reform and a raise within the earnings. Internally, Sweeney devoted nearly a 3rd of the union's budget to organizing new members and pushed for stronger diversity within the union's ranks.
From 2009 to present, it is called Post Great Recession Period. Two presidents have to be mentioned here. President Obama has proposed Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, which helps file a pay discrimination claim at each new paycheck time by restarting the six months statute. Of limitations. Also, in April 2014, he has signed for Non-Retaliation for Disclosure of Compensation Information in Executive Order 13665. Taking the place of Obama’s position, President Trump fights alongside labour movement to achieve NAFTA re-negotiation. However, on the other hand, he also aims to reverse nearly every victory the Obama administration laid down that helps working people, especially vital members who had significant contribution to growing economy.
The UK
According to Fredge and Kelly (2013), some of the most crucial characterizes can be traced back to nineteenth century, British employees were seeking for ways to improving their terms and conditions of employment. By organizing collectively, weakness of isolated individuals had been overcome, so they tried to establish some unions and negotiate with their bosses. At the late of nineteenth century, those workers had reached some very limited legal freedoms, but meanwhile, their employers had also generated the significant mistrust of the legal system and the judiciary. Since there was not effective enough political voice to help workers protect their organisations and conditions by legislation, the labour party was not established until the beginning of twentieth century, which was tend to protect their rights by bargaining and strike, free from legal regulation. Any of government regulate issues programme related to low wages, firing employees were all strongly against unions. This situation lasted until the end of twentieth century.
During the World War II period, the ‘voluntarist’ system of employment relations was promoted by abundant employment. This kind of employment relations were also considered to improved labours’ power of bargain. Which is worth to mention that, most employers stood on the side of ‘voluntarist’ system as well, since they were very satisfied avoiding legal regulation, where unions had widely rights. Employers also preferred solving problems by bargaining just like unions. This system did not start to dissolve until 1960s.
Compared to the USA, the economic performance and productive growth of British were relatively low. From 1968 to the late of 1970s, there were attempts to organise some large-scale negotiated reforms of collective bargaining. However, they were failed because of strong resistance from those powerful unions.
Government policy within the Nineteen Seventies was powerfully influenced by the economist read that the key role of the state was to make sure economic condition through policies of demand management. one in every of the implications of economic condition was a strong trades union movement whose impact on wages, productivity and employment dominated governmental policy at that point. Governments appointed 2 committees of inquiry into industrial relations – in 1965 (the Donovan Commission) and 1975 (the Bullock Committee) – and additionally tried to restrain wage growth through state-imposed incomes policies limiting the allowable annual increase in wage rates.
The Conservative government, elective in 1979, was the primary post-war administration expressly to abandon the goal of financial condition and to reject the standard knowledge that government ought to get to work with union power instead of curb it. below the leadership of Prime Minister Iron Lady, it pursued a neo-liberal policy of deregu- lating markets, reducing taxation and cutting public outlay within the belief these measures would stimulate growth and cut back state. One mechanism of public outlay reduction was the wholesale privatization of state industrial firms.
The Labour governments of 1997–2010 preserved most of the Conservative employment relations laws, however, it departed in three ways: first, a statutory national pay was introduced in 1998. Second, the use Relations Act (1999) introduced a legal procedure whereby trade unions might secure recognition from AN leader for talks. Third, the Labour governments reversed the Conservative 1992 opt-out from European policy and started to implement European Directives within the field of employment relations. These measures introduced a 48-hour limit on weekly operating hours, prescribed a minimum of twenty days paid annual leave, harmonious several of the use rights of part-time and full-time staff and set a four-year limit on the period of serial fixed-term contracts.
The Union Membership Chart Comparison
The dimension of two figures are different, so they can only be able to compared just by their tends.
The union membership in the USA is established earlier than it in the UK. From figure 1, it is found dramatically instability before 1933. It could be discovered that the beginning of Pre New Deal Period (1986) and New Deal Period had stimulated the increase of membership. The peak of the membership is at the end of World War II. It dropped mainly because of economical reason, the globalization.
Trade union membership has declined in both the USA and the UK since the early 1980s but the scale of decline has been more severe in the UK. Unlike the USA having a very unstable data, since 1945 the union membership in the UK can be broken down into four phases from figure 2. From 1945 to late 1960s, trade union membership has risen slowly and steadily from 8 million to 10.2 million. From 1968, the membership increased quickly, peaking at 13.3 million in 1979. Since 1979, the next two decades, the amount of membership has dramatically declined till 1997. Though both of the USA and the UK has dropped during this period of time, the reason are totally different. The membership in the UK has dropped because of the policy published by the conservative party. Then from 1997, it has continued decline but not as fast as the previous decades.
Conclusion
Emerging from war, in the 1940s, the United States got rid of exceptionalist visions, instead, it led the capitalist world to a brand new variety of capitalism, one of high wages and productivity sustained by long-term relationships and negotiation between organized labour and organized capital.
What Obama did for public schools, state-support for health care, and to protect unemployment insurance and social security in this era, can be considered equivalent to New Deal era programmes, which was for unions and allowance for employment-based health insurance and private pensions.
British employment relations have developed over the past 30 years or so. the British government continues to play variety of distinct roles working relations: it is always the most important employer in Britain, with about six million staff in 2011 (around twenty percent of total employment).
The failure of collective bargaining between 1968 to 1970s had prepared the way for Margret Thatcher, who came from the more radical Conservative Governments.
From 1979 to 1997, Conservative Governments tried to find a path to totally change the balance of power supporting employers and against to unions. They had abandoned the national support to full employment, approved statute to limit strike, and directed a extreme decrease in union membership and affects (Howell, 2009).
Compared with 1979, the number of union memberships in 2011 has only be half.
Nowadays, the UK is still in the midst of a economic recession (Newstatesman.com, 2019), the warning sign is the extremely low GDP increasing and severe weak services sectors. If the union membeship change or the strike policy easing would stimulate economy remains to be seen.
References
Bamber, G. and Lansbury, R. (2011). International and comparative employment relations. Los Angeles: Sage. Devinatz, V. (2013). The Significance of the Living Wage for US Workers in the Early Twenty-First Century. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 25(2), pp.125-134. Dol.gov. (2019). U.S. Department of Labor - Wage and Hour Division - U.S. Department of Labor-Handy Reference Guide to the Fair Labor Standards Act. [online] Available at: https://www.dol.gov/whd/regs/compliance/hrg.htm [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019]. Freeman, R. and Medoff, J. (1984). What unions do. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Institute of Economic Research. Frege, C. and Kelly, J. (2013). Comparative Employment Relations in the Global Economy. London and New York: Routledge. Friedman, J., Hastie, T. and Tibshirani, R. (2000). Additive logistic regression: a statistical view of boosting (With discussion and a rejoinder by the authors). The Annals of Statistics, 28(2), pp.337-407. Howell, C. (2009). Trade Unions and the State. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Hyman, R. (2001). Trade Union Research and Cross-National Comparison. European Journal of Industrial Relations, 7(2), pp.203-232. Newstatesman.com. (2019). The UK is unprepared for another economic recession. [online] Available at: https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/economy/2019/01/uk-unprepared-another-economic-recession [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019]. Rose, E. (2004). Employment relations. Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Williams, S. (2013). Introducing employment relations. YouTube. (2019). The Labor Movement in the United States | History. [online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewu-v36szlE [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].
Cite this page
Contrast and Compare the Union Membership of Employment Relations in the UK and the USA. (2019, Feb 13).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
Sociology of the Family
The traditional marriage, or should I say monogamy was the typical marriage in the 1950s. The male-breadwinner marriage, where the man works full-time and the woman is the homemaker was the base for what made these traditional marriages a success. This cultural ideal did not come about until the early 20th century, however, most couples didn’t comply with this new living standard until after WWII. The “nuclear family” became more common shortly after. Not to long after this, the dissatisfaction of women arose, which brought about the “battle of the sexes,” and the decline of the male-breadwinner marriage.
The rise of the male-breadwinner nuclear family brought about the great compression of newly shared prosperity, job discrimination against women, and economic independence for seniors. This typical family was comprised only of one man and one woman with at least one child. This ideal culture for marriage set women with the title of being a homemaker and with men providing everything for the family. This made life very difficult if you were a woman without a husband trying to survive on no salary. This, in turn, forced almost all women to turn to men for survival, which in most cases put them up against norms in which they were trying not to break. Men in this time sought sex, however, women were taught that they were to hold out on this until marriage. Not only was this looked down upon for women to take part in, but it was extremely risky. In this time (the 1950’s) there was no birth control or safe and legal abortion, plus if you were caught you were more than likely the head of the newest scandal and looked down upon by everyone in your social world. Unfortunately, the woman would be looked down upon and called diminishing names such as sluts. But because this was trendy, hip, and an accomplishing thing for guys to do, men were rewarded and congratulated by peers and those in a surrounding area.
This is why we call this a heterosexual double standard because the reactions to men and women having sex were not the same, which isn’t fair. This standard, however, didn’t last for long due to the youth movement of the 1960s and the women’s movement, which challenged both norms and the double standard. With the continuance of cultural backlash, by 1970 the thoughts of traditional marriage were weakening. The divorce rate increasingly became higher because of two reasons. One, the roles of women were changing causing women to reject relationships that they couldn’t tolerate. And two, the stress of providing economic support was too demanding as well as balancing children without as much help from the family or community. Now we have changed the norms tremendously as far as traditional marriage and the heterosexual double standard go. About only 25% of marriages are now male-breadwinner, the rest are comprised of cohabitation families, dual career families, single parents, and gay and lesbian couples. People worry because the marriage rate has continuously been declining, however, it’s really not actually causing any economic inequality.
There are many things in this section about the family that I didn’t know. With that being said, there are a couple shocking statistics that stood out to me and really caught my attention. One is that the rate of people having premarital sex back in 1950 is the same rate as people having premarital sex today. I figured that because of all the risks there were to sex, and how much of a disappointment women were considered to be if they had sex back in that time period, that the number of those having premarital sex would be way lower than it is right now. A second statistic that blew my mind was the fact that now there are nearly 25% of married couples with children that are still considered to be the male-breadwinner nuclear families. With all of the new types of families mentioned in the paragraph above and with the age at which people are getting married, I figured the percentage of people still in the male-breadwinner nuclear family would be much lower than what it actually is.
This new information is shocking and somewhat challenges my thinking on the topic of families. When considering the statistic of premarital sex being as common in the 1950s as it is now really makes you question why you didn’t know this before, or why it seems so much more common now then it did then. It seems like now you hear about it so much and its just a common thing to do in this time. After thinking a lot about it and hearing different things in lecture, I think I have figured out why. Women back then wanted to have sex but didn’t want to get pregnant because that would mean they were such a disobedient person. So women kept their sexual activeness quiet, and if they did by some chance get pregnant then they would just find a way to get rid of the child and not tell anyone.
Now in this day and age, single mothers are so common, and you hear about so many women who are getting pregnant and raising the child on their own and people are so accepting of it. So really I see how the rates of premarital sex then can be the same as now, you simply just didn’t hear much about it back then. On to the statistic of 25% of families still being male-breadwinner. I figured this percentage would be lower than what it actually is. Like I said before, there are new types of families on the rise so I figured that with as many of these new families as there are, people would transfer to these types of families over the male-breadwinner. Also, I figured that because the divorce rate was on a steady increase that families were breaking apart because of the reasons stated in the first paragraph.
Cite this page
Sociology of the Family. (2019, Feb 13).
Retrieved November 5, 2025 , from
https://studydriver.com/2019/02/page/12/
