Month: June 2017
Domestic Violence is very Real and Common in the UK
Domestic violence is very real and common in the UK, and indeed internationally
In the UK domestic violence accounts for a quarter of all crime, despite these figures it is recorded that only 5 per cent of recorded cases of domestic violence end in conviction, less than 20 per cent of rapes and sexual assaults are reported to the police, and less than 6 per cent of rapes result in conviction. Wells points out as a comparison, the number of women that are in prison, and the seemingly trivial reasons for there incarceration. There are now over 4,500 women in prison, an increase of 194 per cent in the last ten years. Most women are convicted of non-violent offences, such as shoplifting.
One woman out of 12 judges in the House of Lords, 5 women out of 43 police Chief Constables, 18 women out of 42 Chief Officers of Probation, 7 women out of 42 Chief Crown Prosecutors, 31 women out of 138 Prison Governors. There was evidence of sexual harassment and discrimination experienced by women working in the system. Domestic violence is not discriminatory and occurs between people of all social classes, amongst all racial and religious groupings and in all age groups. Crime and other statistics can only provide us with a taster of the real picture. The nature and extent of the suffering which is endured by families behind closed doors is very much something that is kept private. Victims of domestic assaults often do not complain of violence, either through fear of being further assaulted, or because they are too embarrassed and ashamed to reveal their plight to professionals who might be able to assist them. Although the traditional perspective is that victims of domestic violence are predominately women, this is not always the case, men, children and the elderly are vulnerable to domestic violence too.
This said there is an abundance of evidence to show that it is women and children who are the main victims. Children who themselves suffer violence at the hands of a parent are in the main protected by the state though child protection procedures.
The remedies provided by the civil law are therefore generally used to obtain protection for an adult victim. As Subedi points out There are several causes of violence against women. These range from historical unequal power relations between men and women to cultural perceptions, women’s sexuality, inaction on the part of the agents of the State to the traditional perception in law and practice that matters within the family and between a husband and wife are basically private matters in which outside or State involvement should be kept to a minimum. Unlike other forms of crime, the problem with domestic violence has been that even the law itself is not well- developed and the law that is there on this issue has not been enforced as vigorously as possible. It is from this premise that efforts have been made in the recent past both at national and international level to strengthen the law on traditional patterns of violence and to expand the scope of the law to cover new forms of violence. While the problem often encountered in this process at national level is the doctrine of privacy and the concept of the sanctity of the family, the dichotomy of the public/private sphere is the problem at international level. In the UK, domestic assaults are criminal offences and a man who attacks his wife can be prosecuted for his actions. He may be charged with one or more of various offences against the person included the offence of rape.
The Protection From Harassment Act 1997 introduced strong measures to assist those who are victims of a course of conduct, which amounts to harassment and made such conduct a crime. However, victims of domestic violence and harassment may be reluctant to become involved in the prosecution process for a number of reasons. These include the realisation by the victim that the matter is no longer under her control once she has reported an attack to the police. It will be up to the police to decide whether and how they wish to investigate her complaint, and it will be the decision of the Crown Prosecution Service whether or not to go ahead and press charges. This loss of control acts as a disincentive to women to report incidents of violence, as they may well fear the consequences of their action if the police and Crown Prosecution Service fail, as they see it, to respond in an appropriate fashion. In the past the police have been unwilling to intervene in cases of domestic violence, and to prosecute offenders. This perception of the police as unwilling to come to the assistance of victims of domestic assaults is still evident today, even though domestic violence is taken much more seriously by the police than in the past, and even though police practices in many areas have changed radically in favour of the victim. Figures from British Crime Surveys suggest that domestic violence forms the largest single category of violent crime. In a survey carried out by Davis and Gretny revealed that of a total of 448 assaults, all of which were referred to the CPS, there were 243 (54 per cent) non-domestics and 205 (46 per cent) “domestics”. If the British Crime Survey finding that domestic violence comprises 20 per cent of all assaults can be believed, and if the Bristol police files that they surveyed can be taken to be representative of the current position, it would appear that domestic assault is significantly more likely to be prosecuted than is assault in other contexts. This is remarkable given the widely accepted picture of domestic violence as a crime both under-reported and under-recorded. In such situations a victim of domestic violence, may apply for an injunction under the Davis G & Cretney A, (1996) Prosecuting Domestic Assault, Criminal Law Review Mar 162 – 174 or a non- molestation order under s42 of the Family Law Act 1996. The statutes have somewhat differing aims although both statutes do aim to prevent harassment and can be compared and this will be discussed.
Only ‘associated persons’ can apply under the FLA 1996; anybody can apply under the PHA 1997. There are wider remedies available under the FLA 1996, including the power to make ‘occupation orders’. Damages can be awarded only under the PHA 1997. This is an important point. Domestic violence/harassment knows no social boundaries and therefore an award of damages can be a salutory lesson. It can also be an important remedy for those who are scared to report, for fear of financial hardship. Such damages can, of course, if not promptly paid, be enforced in all the usual ways including execution, attachment of earnings or a charging order on land – if necessary followed by an order for sale. Presently, a power of arrest can be attached to FLA 1996 orders but not to PHA 1997 orders. However, although the power of arrest is retained for occupation orders it is to be abolished for non-molestation orders. A warrant of arrest can be issued under either statute.
Breach of an injunction under s 3 of the PHA 1997 is an offence breach of a non-molestation order is made an offence by s 42A of the FLA 1996.(7) District judges have full jurisdiction under both statutes to make orders, issue warrants and deal with contempt of court proceedings for breach of orders. Applications under the FLA 1996 are family proceedings governed by the Family Proceedings Rules 1991 and must be issued in a family proceedings court, a divorce county court, family hearing centre, care centre or in the Principal Registry or Lambeth Shoreditch or Woolwich County Courts.Applications under the PHA 1997 are civil proceedings governed by CPR 1998 Part 65 and can be issued in the High Court (Queen’s Bench Division) or in the county court for the district in which either the claimant or the defendant resides or carries on business. Exceptionally, concurrent proceedings under both statutes are appropriate. They should be consolidated and tried together. A person arrested and brought before the court pursuant to the FLA 1996 can be remanded in custody or on bail. There is no power to remand a person arrested and brought before the court pursuant to the PHA 1997. Punishment for contempt of court under either statute is subject to the maximum of 2 years’ imprisonment provided by the Contempt of Court Act 1981. The sentence must be proportionate to the seriousness of the contempt. Conviction for breach of an injunction under s 3 of the PHA 1997 or for breach of a non-molestation order under s 42A of the FLA 1996 both carry a maximum sentence of 6 months and/or a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum on summary conviction, and a maximum sentence of 5 years and/or fine on conviction on indictment.
Both statutes provide that a person cannot be both punished for contempt of court and prosecuted in respect of the same incident. The PHA 1997 also creates offences (ss 2 and 4) not dependant on a civil injunction; the FLA 1996 does not. By s 1 of the PHA 1997, a person must not pursue a course of conduct which amounts to harassment of another and which he knows or ought to know amounts to harassment of another. By s 7(3) a ‘course of conduct’ must involve conduct on at least two occasions and by s 7(4) ‘conduct’ includes speech.
Section 7(3A) was inserted by the Criminal Justice and Police Act 2001 and provides: ‘A person’s conduct on any occasion shall be taken, if aided, abetted, counselled or procured by another: (a) to be conduct on that occasion of the other (as well as conduct of the person whose conduct it is); and (b) to be conduct in relation to which the other’s knowledge and purpose, and what he ought to have known, are the same as they were in relation to what was contemplated or reasonably foreseeable at the time of the aiding, abetting, counselling or procuring.’ The phrase ‘course of conduct’ has caused difficulty. In R v Hills held that assaults in April and October 1999 were not a ‘course of conduct’, particularly since the parties had been reconciled in the interim. In Lau v Director of Public Prosecutions quashed a conviction on the grounds that two incidents 4 months apart were not a ‘course of conduct’. The fewer the number of incidents and the wider the time lapse between them, the less likely that they give rise to a ‘course of conduct’. On appropriate facts, a charge of assault should be preferred. Indeed, many cases justify both a charge of assault and of harassment. The definition of harassment (and assault) is the same in civil and criminal proceedings, and thus arguments on whether or not there was a course of conduct can arise in both civil and criminal courts. In civil cases, where they may be doubt on whether there is a course of conduct then, as in crime, where appropriate, assault can also be alleged. In June 2003 the Home Office published a consultation paper setting out proposals to tackle domestic violence. The paper indicated the Government’s strategy was based on three elements: to prevent domestic violence occurring or recurring; to increase support for victims; and to ensure improved legal protection and justice for domestic violence victims. This led to the enactment of the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004 which came into force in March 2005. DVCVA 2004 closely links the civil and criminal processes through new police powers, and through a new criminal offence of breach of a non-molestation order. It also creates a new offence of causing or permitting the death of a child or vulnerable person. It also requires the adoption of a code of practice and a victims’ fund, to be financed by surcharges on fines and some fixed penalties. It creates the power for the Criminal Injuries Compensation Authority to recover money from offenders, and makes a variety of other changes to criminal procedure, powers and sentencing. Non-molestation or occupation orders are key tools in providing protection for those who fall within the category of “associated persons”. Prior to the enactment of the DVCVA 2004 eligibility extended to those living together as man and wife (“cohabitants”), or former cohabitants, and those who live or have lived in the same household (except if they are employees, tenants or boarders, or a lodger). DVCVA 2004 extends the category of “associated person” to include cohabitants in a same-sex relationship living in an equivalent relationship to that of husband and wife. The power to attach a power of arrest to a non-molestation order is removed by this act.
Instead, common assault becomes an arrestable offence under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 and breach of a non-molestation order becomes a criminal (arrestable) offence. If, for whatever reason, no prosecution is mounted, perhaps because of the wishes of the victim, that does not prevent an application to the civil court to commit for breach of the order. Nothing prevents the commencement of civil proceedings while criminal proceedings are pending, following arrest, though arguably a family court should await the determination of the criminal process. A new criminal offence is created under s42A will be punishable on conviction on indictment by a term of imprisonment not exceeding five years, or a fine, or both, and on summary conviction by a term of imprisonment not exceeding 12 months, or a fine not exceeding the statutory minimum, or both. The prosecution will need to prove the existence and terms of the order; the fact that the defendant was aware of the order; conduct that amounts to breach of that order, provided the breach is relevant only to sentence and not to guilt or innocence; and the lack of reasonable excuse. Minor changes are made to occupation orders under the DVCVA 2004 these require a court, in proceedings for an occupation order, to consider whether or not to make a non-molestation order. Other changes include changes to reflect cohabitation as opposed to marriage. Nothing in the new Act removes the right of the court to attach a power of arrest to an occupation order.
This may cause some difficulties where a court makes both a non-molestation order and an occupation order, particularly if a court has attached a radius clause, for example not to come within a specified distance of the applicant’s home. Restraining orders under PHA 1997 form an integral part of the machinery for the protection of victims of domestic violence. DVCVA 2004, s 12, will extend the court’s power to make a restraining order under s 5 of PHA 1997.Under s 5, when a court is sentencing or otherwise dealing with a person who is convicted of an offence under s 2 or s 4 of that Act, then as well as sentencing him or dealing with him in any other way, it may make a restraining order. The restraining order is particularly useful, as it provides for the continued safety of the victim but can only be made in cases where a conviction had been obtained for a s 2 or s 4 offence. As Wells points out: A vignette of current concerns suggests that much has changed in the last few decades. There is a ministerial group on domestic violence headed by Home Office minister, Baroness Scotland. The Solicitor General, a woman, has made tackling domestic violence a policy priority. She has talked to the President of Family Division, a woman.
The Law Commission has recommended the abolition of the partial defence of provocation for reasons largely to do with its differential impact on male and female partner killers. The psychological trauma associated with rape and other forms of sexual harassment has been acknowledged, much attention has been given to improving police practices, and the offences themselves have been reconfigured around the concept of trust. It is difficult to believe that these changes would have come about without the influence of feminism in general and feminist legal commentators in particular. These changes also fit into a much wider pattern in which victims have moved very much centre stage along with the associated restorative justice movement. Internationally moves are being made to improve the situation for women. There have been international efforts to strengthen women’s rights. This perception has contributed to the reluctance on the part of many countries to adopt either a protocol to CEDAW providing for individual petition or a protocol on violence against women with similar remedies for women.
Moreover, the perception of States towards certain types of violence seems to be different in developed Western countries from that of certain developing countries. While widespread dissemination of pornographic material and use of women as sex objects by the media has been viewed as violence against women by women in certain developing countries, the same does not necessarily hold true in certain Western countries such as the Netherlands and the United States, which opposed the inclusion of this type of violence in the definition of violence in the draft UN declaration on violence against women.
This type of activity cannot be violence for those women who voluntarily allow themselves to be used as sex objects by the media. But it may be seen as a psychological violence against women in general by those who disapprove of such treatment of women by the media. The protest campaigns organised recently by grass-root women’s groups in India against the world beauty competition in Bangalore is an example of such differences of opinion. So is British law sufficient? Does it protect women adequately? There is generally are much greater awareness of domestic violence, and the criminality and culpability has increased some what over the last decade. Awareness has been heightened, although it can be argued that the piece meal legislation is unacceptable and there needs to be some joined up thinking insofar as this area of law is concerned.
Whilst the new legislation is a move in that direction, it is a wasted opportunity as it is certainly desirable that the law on domestic violence should be consolidated.
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Critical Analysis of Police Powers on Search, Arrest and Detention
Police Powers: A Critical Analysis of Police Powers on Search, Arrest and Detention
Aims and Objectives
This proposed dissertation has a number of key aims it intends to meet. These can be expressed as follows: 1. To provide an overall perspective of the role of policing in the community; 2. To demonstrate the historical development of the nature of policing, due to changes in social circumstances; 3. To address any key differences between public and ‘private' forms of policing (e.g. security, private investigation etc); 4. To assess the current powers of police in relation to search, arrest and detention, and highlight the differences with historical times; and 5. To assess the governance of police, with particular reference to internal resolution and discipline procedures.Feasibility
This proposal requires no data collection or fieldwork, and is virtually entirely theory based. By minimising the extraneous fieldwork requirements, it allows this dissertation to focus mainly on the underlying theory and social policy behind policing, allowing for an adequate analysis of the benefits and consequences of increased police powers in the modern context. There may be some critique of internal police processes, such as dispute and conflict resolution and discipline, which may require some liaison with police officials; however it does not require the same depth and preparation as a large-scale data collection, saving time and resources.Rationale
The role of policing is ever changing and expanding. Throughout history, the concept of policing has had to adapt to respond to a number of challenges that have faced society. >From the industrial revolution, through to both world wars and now the apparent growing threat of terrorism, policing has changed and grown to equip itself to deal with a number of new circumstances. Perhaps most notably since the attacks of September 11 on New York City, the threat of terrorism has never appeared so real. As a consequence, many national governments, including the United States, United Kingdom and Australia (among others) have amended the powers of police in an attempt to deal with terrorism and terrorist groups. The primary purpose of this proposed dissertation is to consider the general idea of policing (as highlighted throughout historical development), and also determine whether these increases in the powers of police represent a proportionate and measured response to the threat of terrorism and 21st century society, or whether it is simply an overreaction by lawmakers and police groups.Research Points
1. The nature and function of policing The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide a broad overview of the general theories behind policing, such as the prevention of crime and enhancement of public safety. The main points of interest in this area will be the role of police in the State and legal system, as well as the pluralisation of the police forces. Another area for explanation by this chapter will be the relationship between the police and other aspects of policing, such as forensic investigation and the court system, for example. By illustrating this, the audience will be ‘read into' the idea behind policing, rather than simply limiting policing to the simple concept of arresting those who break the law, and thus deterrence will also be a point worthy of highlighting. 2. The historical development of policing This chapter will be largely theory based, presenting a number of views and opinions on the development of policing over time. Of particular interest here will be the differences in opinion between historical theory and that present in modern times. This will prepare the audience for the debate that this dissertation intends on contributing to: the idea of over-extending police powers, creating a disproportionate response to modern day issues. The idea of this chapter is to highlight key events in history that have seen the development of police, and measure the police response to these events. This will allow for a comparison with modern day ideas and objectives. 3. Police work, and the impact of police organisations There are a number of key issues that this chapter will seek to address, however it is primarily concerned with identifying the real perception of police work, rather than relying on any possibly fabricated reports from tabloids and other media. Particularly, this chapter will attempt to identify the possible existence of elements of discrimination arising from the reliance upon police discretion in carrying out police work. This is an issue that has received notorious media coverage, highlighted especially by the Rodney King incident and consequent Los Angeles riots in the United States in 1992, as a result of the officers' acquittal in a state court. Another area of interest will be the measurement of effectiveness (i.e. how does one measure when policing is effective?). 4. The characteristics and dynamics of police organisations As with any workplace, there are certain policies and procedures in place to ensure that the environment is both manageable and productive. The main rationale of this chapter will be to highlight these policies that are in place in many of the popular police forces, and also to assess whether they sufficiently address issues such as discipline and reporting lines, for example. The most important aspects of this chapter will be the management structures in place to run the force, as well as any issues relating to personnel (eg. Recruitment, training etc). Additionally, the informal nature of management will also be important; to determine if convention and custom play any significant role in the way police work is carried out. This chapter may require first-hand research from police bureaus, which will most probably be conducted by way of interview with a senior official or similar. 5. Specialist areas of policing This chapter will highlight other areas of policing, such as criminal investigation processes, and the control of public order in particular circumstances (eg. Riots, major events etc). This will give an indication of the more specialised roles that police play in modern society, and the need for more focused policy rather than broad ideals. 6. The relationship between State and ‘private' policing The intention of this chapter is to raise the question of private security and other measures that do not rely on public policy. The main question is where does state responsibility end and private responsibility begin? 7. The legal powers of the police This is perhaps one of the most important chapters of the dissertation. It will focus primarily on the sources of law for police powers, particularly in the United Kingdom jurisdiction. Primarily, this source is from legislation, and is found in relevant sections of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984; however certain aspects are also covered at common law. Furthermore, other legislation should also be assessed, such as the Mental Health Act 1983, Road Traffic Act 1988, Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, Aviation Security Act 1982, Criminal Law Acts 1966 and 1967, Terrorism Act 2000, Public Order Act 1936 and 1986, Firearms Act 1968, Police Acts 1996 and 1997, Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, Customs and Excise Management Act 1979; as well as cases such as Moss v McLachlan (1980), Donnelly v Jackman (1970) and Thomas v Sawkins (1935). As one can see, this chapter is quite detailed and requires much consideration of a wealth of sources of police power, and thus there is ample opportunity for a review to be conducted on police power in more specialised areas of policing, such as terrorism, traffic and drugs, to name a few. 8. Police accountability and control This chapter will primarily focus on the governance of the police force, with a particular emphasis on the impact that the legislature and judiciary can have on the regulation of police power, and thus protection of the public. Also, the complaints process available for use by the public will also be discussed, and thus the effectiveness of this system as a means of conflict resolution will be assessed. 9. The role of the police organisation in the formation of law and criminal justice policy It is also important to understand the broad role that a police organisation has in contributing to its own regulation and governance. In this chapter, the amount of input that the police have in this area will be discussed and thus a conclusion will be drawn as to whether the police are an entity that can effectively self-govern, or one that requires the constant oversight and minding of the Parliament and court system in order to determine its boundaries and aims. 10. The rights of the police In the final chapter, the debate will be contributed to by the question: do police have any rights in relation to stop, search and arrest? Or is it merely the rights of the public that are governed by legislation? Also, how are police represented in misconduct and disciplinary hearings? The rights to safety and representation of the members of the police force will be discussed by this chapter, and contrasted with the statutory and common law rights of the public that form the source of police law.Methodology
As this proposal has already mentioned, this dissertation is significantly theory based, meaning that the methodology for the research is simply statute, case law, as well as other authors' works on various issues relevant to the topic. There will be some aspects which may require first-hand liaison with members of the police force and their senior officials, particularly those relating to the mechanics of police work which cannot be discussed by simply reading other works. This should be primarily collected by interviews with certain members, and possible government officials, and suitable ethics clearance will be obtained from the relevant committee at a time when the participants in these interviews become clear.References
· Anon., ‘Divisional Court – Police Power to Remove Masks from Demonstrators' (2002) 66 Journal of Criminal Law 197 · Bell, J., Police and Policing Law (2006), Aldershot, UK: Ashgate · Brayne, H., ‘Detention under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984' (1987) 84(1) Law Society Gazette 28 · Clayton, R., and Tomlinson, H., ‘Safeguards and Sanctions under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984' (1988) 138(6350) New Law Journal 216 · Davenport, A., ‘Court of Appeal – Stop and Search: Lawfulness of Extended Powers' (2005) 69 Journal of Criminal Law 16 · Edwards, C., Changing Policing Theories for 21st Century Societies (2005, 2nd ed), Sydney: The Federation Press · Ferguson, P.W., ‘The Limits of the Police Power of Search' (1992) 37(3) The Journal of the Law Society of Scotland 113 · Harrison, R., ‘Police Right to Stop and Search for Weapons' (2000) 64 Journal of Criminal Law 156 · Holdaway, S., The Racialisation of British Policing (1996), Hampshire, UK: Macmillan Press · Jason-Lloyd, L., An Introduction to Policing and Police Powers (2005), London: Routledge-Cavendish · Leishman, F., and Mason, P., Policing and the Media: Facts, Fictions and Factions (2003), Devon, UK: Willan Publishing · Lidstone, K.W., and Palmer, C., Bevan and Lidstone's The Investigation of a Crime – a Guide to Police Powers (1996, 2nd ed), London: Butterworths · Miller, S., and Blackler, J., Ethical Issues in Policing (2005), Aldershot, UK: Ashgate · Mimmack, A., ‘Police Station Practice' (2006) 10(1) Magistrate's Court Practice 6 · Morgan, R., and Newburn, T., ‘Radically Rethinking Policing' (1994) 144(6659) New Law Journal 1092 · Nicholls, S., ‘Police Station Practice' (2006) 10(6) Magistrate's Court Practice 6 · Poyser, S., ‘The Role of Police Discretion in Britain and an Analysis of Proposals for Reform' (2004) 77 Police Journal 5 · Reiner, R., ‘Responsibilities and Reforms' (1993) 143(6611) New Law Journal 1096 · Reiner, R., The Politics of the Police (2000, 3rd ed), London: Oxford University Press · Roberts, A., ‘European Court of Human Rights: Search Warrant: Compatibility with Articles 8 and 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights' (2006) 70 Journal of Criminal Law 479 · Spencer, J.R., ‘Extending the Police State' (2005) 155(7170) New Law Journal 477 · Starmer, K., Criminal Justice, Police Powers and Human Rights (2001), London: Blackstone · Stone, R., The Law of Entry, Search and Seizure (2005, 4th ed), London: Oxford University Press · Zander QC, M., ‘The Police Reform Act 2002 – Pt 1' (2002) 152(7047) New Law Journal 1355Fraud Order 200975
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Critical Analysis of Police Powers on Search, Arrest and Detention. (2017, Jun 26).
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Modern Perspective on Contractual Obligation
Empirical studies of contracting behaviour consistently demonstrate that commercial contracting parties care little for written contracts or the rules of contract law. Should the law of contract manifest any concern over this? If not, why not, and if so, how should the rules of contract law be amended to better reflect commercial practice? The overwhelming majority of contracts are transacted in an informal setting. Such contracts are either made by word of mouth, or even by a party's conduct. Whilst that may be the case, written contracts are the types of agreements which are favoured by parties in the commercial world, not least because of what is potentially at stake in the event of a breach of the agreement. The extent of the terms of some commercial agreements and the seriousness of the implications of a breach of a party's obligations, written contracts are resorted to to ensure both that the parties to the contract are aware of their rights and obligations and also as a reference tool in the event of a dispute. The advent of the European Community witnessed a renewed impetus to harmonize the laws pertaining to, inter alia, commercial contracts.
Various efforts have already been made to facilitate international transactions. For instance, the Uniform Law on International Sales and the Vienna Sales Convention, the Rome Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations. These efforts have been producing w new codified lex mercatoria. This work is seeks to highlight the rules applicable to parties to commercial contracts within the European Community and whether or not these rules are adequate to cope with parties who do not honour their contractual obligations. More specifically, are contracts which are made orally or by conduct enforceable in European Law? The essay shall also highlight whether there is any concern if parties care little for written contracts, and if not why not? In the Conclusion, the work shall explain whether or not the rules ought to be modified to reflect current commercial practice. Harmonising European Contract Law Efforts already made to harmonize the EU contract law rules have manifested in various forms.
The national laws applicable to contracts vary from Member State to Member State. This difference or divergence in the laws inevitably adversely influences the decision of businesses whether or not to carry out cross-border transactions. A difference in the laws can result in uncertainty and negatively affect whether or nota business decides to enter an agreement with a party based in a different Member State. The European institutions have therefore taken action to alleviate this problem by introducing laws which are applicable throughout Member States. These laws come in a variety of forms; Regulations; Directives and European Court of Justice judgments. Most notably, however, The Principles of European Contract Law 1998 has done a good job in encapsulating, codifying and harmonizing the rules of contract law from Member States. The Principles of European Contract law Parts I and II – (Parts I and II completed and revised) states (at Article 1) that the Principles are intended to be applied throughout Member States as the general rules of contract law in the EC. Furthermore, the Principles shall apply when the parties agree to their application, or in the event that it has not been expressly stated that a specific system or rules of law shall govern the contract.
In addition, the Principles can also be used where other national laws or rules fail to provide a solution. Under the Principles however, the parties still maintain the right to freedom of contract. That is to say that parties are permitted to agree upon the terms they wish to agree upon. However, set out in the document are ‘General Obligations' of ‘Good Faith' and ‘Fair Dealing' and a ‘Duty to Cooperate'. These obligations cannot be derogated from and therefore provide a safeguard for parties to a contract. Albeit a contract, under the Principles, may still be made orally or by conduct, and does not have to be in writing. All that is required is that the parties intended to be ‘legally bound' , and that they reached a ‘sufficient agreement'. Furthermore, those terms which have not been individually negotiated can be invoked against a party who claims to have been unaware of them, providing that the party wishing to invoke them takes reasonable steps to highlight their existence prior to, or at the time of, concluding the contract.
The European Contract Law Project The Principles of European Contract Law document is over a decade old now. Since the introduction of the Principles of European Contract Law, there have been further efforts within the European Community to streamline and harmonise European Contract law. Most notably, the Common Frame of Reference has made great strides in this area. Background to the Formation of the Common Frame Reference In 1999, the European Council (Tampere) requested a study on the feasibility of approximation of civil law in order to facilitate the efficient functioning of the European market. The European Commission responded by announcing that a consultation shall take place in order to collate information on how to form a European Contract Law. Subsequent to this, an Action Plan followed in 2003 proposing measures, for instance, the Common Frame of Reference was one such measure. Common Frame of Reference In essence, the Common Frame of Reference (‘CFR') outlines the model rules, principles and definitions to be applied to contract law within the EC. It is a long-term project with the objective of facilitating the preparation or revision of existing legislation in the field of contract law. It shall be of assistance to EC Legislators by providing solutions to contractual problems within the EC.
These solutions have been extracted from existing contract law within the Member States. It is hoped that this will, inter alia, modify the existing body of rules applicable to contract law within the EC. Work already done in this area has produced various pieces of legislation aimed at improving existing laws. For instance, EU consumer protection law is a good example of all the work that has resulted in EC laws. R. Madelin, in his article, European Contract Law: Moving Forward Together, Director General for Health and Consumer Protection European Commission stated (at pg. 5) that it is hoped that the European Contract Law Project, and particularly the CFR, shall aide the pursuit of the following goals: achieving better regulation, boosting competitiveness and improving the functioning of the international market.
Reshaping the legal landscape to enhance competitiveness within the EC ought to provide an environment in which businesses are able to operate within the EC in a more efficient and profitable manner. This should address some of the complaints which have been forthcoming from small and medium size enterprises, who were concerned, inter alia, about inconsistent and diverse contract laws throughout the Member States (see pg. 5 article). It was felt that a more consistent and transparent system would facilitate competitiveness by allowing businesses to conduct cross-border transactions in a more efficient manner by supplying goods and services in a more competitive environment. It follows that greater confidence in European Contractual Law would inject greater confidence in the EC business community and in turn increase cross-border transactions. Ultimately therefore, European institutions are responsible for introducing laws which will simplify, and be more coherent to facilitate transactions within the EC, which ought to eliminate, or at least reduce, legal obstacles to trade. The European Commission has committed itself to utilizing the CFR in order to improve the quality and coherence of contract law. The success and development of the CFR is due to the fact that it has received support from all European Community institutions, Member States and stakeholders alike. Following public consultation, the CPR was adopted. The objective of the CFR shall become a toolkit for the Commission's lawmakers, including the European Council and EC Parliament. The CFR shall also be of benefit as a source of reference for law-makers, judges and lawyers.
The work carried out for consumer contract law has been particularly fruitful. For instance, in October 2008, the proposal for a Directive on Consumer Rights was adopted by the Commission. The ultimate objective of which was to make it easier and cheaper for Member States to conduct cross-border transactions. The Unfair Contract Terms Directive (1993/13/EEC) is only of eight pieces of legislation which is being analysed in relation to the Review of the Consumer Acquis. Such initiatives are aimed at improving legislation by identifying and alleviating problems. For instance, the Unfair Contract Terms Directive has introduced the concept of ‘good faith' into consumer contracts, in an attempt to redress any imbalance that may be present in a contract between a seller and consumer. In addition, the Directive sets out a list of terms that are to be deemed unfair in such contracts, and are thereby rendered obsolete if they are included in such agreements. It is a further requirement that terms are to be ‘plain and intelligible' and any ambiguity shall be interpreted in the consumer's favour. Therefore is accordingly a duty on Member States to ensure that the provisions of the Directive are implemented. Conclusion As noted above, the European institutions have been busy harmonising the laws applicable to contracts throughout the Member States.
The work already completed with the CRF has ensured that parties to contracts have participated in the process of harmonising the laws applicable to contracts. This therefore ensures that the rights and obligations of the parties to a commercial contract are reflected in the laws introduced by the EC institutions. It accordingly follows that there is no need for any concern if parties prefer to enter contractual agreements by conduct or statement. Providing such agreements are clear (see Section 2, Article 2.101 of the Principles), and that both parties are aware of the terms, and express their wish to be legally bound by the agreement (see Section 1, Article 2.101 of the Principles), the right to freedom of contract has been preserved. Given the differences in the Common law system adopted in Ireland and the United Kingdom, and the variations of the civil law systems adopted by the remaining Member States, these efforts by the EC institution et al to harmonise the contract laws applicable to Member States ought to improve the position of parties to commercial contracts by keeping them informed of their rights and obligations, which in turn, one would think, ought to ultimately reduce breaches of contract within the EC.
Introduction The corporate structures in Member States of the European Community (‘EC') differ immensely in their form and the practices that they adopt. The EC institutions have accordingly endeavoured to facilitate the smooth functioning of the internal market by harmoninsing the systems and laws applying to corporate structures throughout Member States. This assignment provides a critical assessment of the corporate structures applicable to Member States. More specifically, the work shall explore whether or not corporate structures within the EC are operating in an efficient manner. Given the limited word count of this work, however, and the complexity of the subject, the essay concentrates on one aspect of corporate structures within the EC; Golden Shares. The work shall highlight the efforts made by the EC institutions, particularly the European Court of Justice (‘ECJ'), in attempting to bring about parity within Member States by eliminating obstacles to the free movement of capital, as required under Article 56 EC Treaty. Golden shares inhibit the free movement of capital by discouraging foreign investment, inter alia, due to the special rights that are often retained by the holders of golden shares.
EC law makers, particularly the ECJ, have endeavoured to bring a degree of semblance to the EC rules governing corporate structures in relation to ‘golden shares'. This has been done through a process of sifting out the ‘golden shares' and ruling them to be inconsistent with EC law. The assignment shall commence by outlining information about ‘Golden Shares' before setting out numerous prominent ECJ case law pertaining to ‘Golden Shares'. Finally, in the Conclusion, the work shall sum up the findings. Golden Shares A ‘golden share' is a shareholding which derives from a former state-owned company, in which a government of a Member State may reserve, subsequent to its privatization. Such shares carry with them special rights which the government shareholder can enjoy. Albeit the government, despite being a minority shareholder, often wields rights which permit it to exercise undue influence over the company. This usually exceeds the percentage of the stake the government owns in the company.
The special rights in question can come in the form of: power to veto certain actions by the company in question; limiting the size of other shareholdings; blocking foreign shareholdings; and a right to control the appointment of directors. Whilst being a relatively common practice in Member States, the EC feels that the practice is undesirable and has therefore sought to tackle such shareholdings. For instance, in 2003, the ECJ found that the UK government failed in its duty to fulfill its obligations in accordance with Article 56 of the EC Treaty, namely in respect of the principle of the free movement of capital. In addition, Spain was also held to have upset the ECJ by holding golden shares in numerous companies, such as: Repsol, an energy company; Telfoncia, telecommunications company; Tabacalera, tobacco company; Argentaria, banking group; and Endesa, electricity company. Again the ECJ held that the shareholdings held by the Spanish government in this regard were inconsistent with EC principles as they restricted the free movement of capital throughout the EC.
The result of the ECJ's judgment was that the Spanish government was compelled to change its relationships with the companies in question. The ECJ has illustrated, however, that its decision are thoroughly thought through before outlawing such shareholdings. For instance, the ECJ found that a Member State can derogate from the obligations under Article 56 EC Treaty of ensuring the free movement of capital, on the basis of retaining special rights as the holder of ‘golden shares', on grounds of national security, and in applying the principle of proportionality, when it decided that Distrigaz, a Belgian energy firm, was permitted to retain its ‘golden share' because it was a ‘legitimate measure designed to promote the general national interest in terms of the security of the national gas supplying times of emergency'. However, the general consensus within the ECJ appears to be one of ruling such shareholdings to be inconsistent with EC principles.
For instance, in 2006, the ECJ proved once again that it would not shy away from ruling that a Member State had infringed the principle of free movement of capital when the Netherland's government was found to have breached the principle by retaining special rights (golden shares) following the privatization of the national postal, Koninklijke KPN NV (‘KPN'), and telecommunications companies TNT Post Groep NV (‘TNG'). The shares themselves permitted the government to, inter alia, give prior approval of specific management decisions. The ECJ accordingly held such rights to be disproportionate to the rights enjoyed by ordinary shareholders. It was accordingly felt that such shares could potentially discourage investors from other Member States from investing in the company. Conclusion The ongoing campaign by EC institutions, particularly the ECJ in this regard, in seeking to eradicate any impediments to greater liberalisation of the EC Member States' markets, is clearly not complete. It is therefore highly likely that the eradication of government owned ‘golden shares' is likely to continue unabated. That is that there appears to be no room for ‘golden shares' in the EC's agenda. Whilst this may impact hard on the corporate structures of many Member States, the harmonization of the rules shall undoubtedly result in an increase in cross-border mergers, which includes former state owned companies in which the government hitherto held ‘golden shares'. This may call for a shake-up of the current corporate structures in this regard, but the closer cooperation of Member States can only enhance and improve the corporate structures.
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Press Media Journalism
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How Far is Military Force an Effective Instrument for the Promotion of Humanitarian Values?
Recent years have seen an increase in military force being used as a tool for increasing the scope for humanitarian values within conflict zones. This paper assesses this trend, and uses a number of conflict case studies as a vehicle for evaluating this premise. In doing so, this paper considers that the Libyan intervention in 2011 offers a case study which argues that state led humanitarian intervention is borne out of a political, as opposed to a humanitarian, need. This undermines the promotion of humanitarian values. The concept of military led humanitarian intervention can be found within a highly subjective area of academic and political thought.
With regards to this, there are some commentator’s, such as Waxman (2013: n.p.) who consider that military led humanitarian intervention consists ofA “the use of military force to protect foreign populations from mass atrocities or gross human rights abuses” whilst others, including Marjanovic (2012: n.p.) see this particular course of action as being “a state using military force against another state when the chief publicly declared aim of that military action is ending human-rights violations being perpetrated by the state against which it is directed”. With regards to this subjectivity there is a series of overlapping concepts that help to further the debate in this area. These overlapping areas can be found within a number of conceptual areas including war and conflict within which humanitarian values are negatively impacted by activities which impact upon non-combatants, these include human rights abuses.A Where humanitarian values are considered, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) (2013) holds a perspective which suggests that these comprise of aspiration in relation to humanity, neutrality, independence, and impartiality. In this regard, therefore, one can suggest that where military forces are deployed in order to promote or support humanitarian operations it is necessary that these forces act accordingly within the boundaries of these guiding principles. In their totality, therefore, it is arguable that there exists a number of factors which need to be present where a situation occurs that requires military led humanitarian assistance. With regards to any underpinning intervention that relates to issues covered within humanitarian interventions, Weiss (2012: 1) believes that it is possible that an underlying notion of a “responsibility to protect” is a dominating factor in contemporary geo-political thinking, however instead of this doctrinal approach being used across the globe Weiss (2012) believes that the global community tends to cherry-pick the various conflicts that it intervenes in, this is discussed elsewhere in this paper. That said, Minear & Weiss (1995) had previously indicated that any military intervention that seeks to promote humanitarian values should incorporate a post war recovery planning and redevelopment programme. However recent decades, particularly since the end of the Cold War, has seen an increase in the numbers of military led humanitarian interventions that are related to “activities undertaken to improve the human condition” (Weiss, 2012: 1). This latter issue, concerning the human condition, suggests that there has been a genuine shift in the contemporary conflict environment. This shift is primarily based on the progression from conventional warfare to of asymmetric warfare which involves a number of non-state actors and combatants.
This is a factor that has not been ignored by Weiss (2012). Here the suggestion that, today, only state led military interventions can promote humanitarian values has been promoted because non-state actors are not bound by regulations and international protocols regarding the dynamics and conduct of war. Indeed this particular perspective gains an increased level of support where the current post Cold War conflict environment is considered. For Pattison (2010) the years following the end of the Cold War have resulted in a vastly increased number of military operations that have been designed to support humanitarian values through intervention.
These interventions have occurred in a plethora of collapsed or failed states and include, but are not limited to. post Gulf War (1991–2003) Iraq, Bosnia – Serbia (1995), The Balkans and Kosovo (1992-1999), East Timor (1999) Somalia (2002), Haiti (2004), and Libya (2011). These interventions, for some, also include the post 9-11 era’s intervention in to Afghanistan and latterly in Iraq (2003-2010) (Pattison, 2010). In this regards, Weiss (2012) believes that the underlying concept of humanitarian intervention has helped to increase the potential for international interventions into other states because of a need to increase the level of protection offered to non-combatants from conflict. However, the earlier indication of cherry picking conflicts offers for a greater insight into the nature of political discourses which take place at the United Nations (UN) Security Council with regards to these conflicts and where state led political aspirations are an overbearing factor in the intervention tools and choices made by states. Indeed one can argue that the current and ongoing conflict in Syria offers as a casing point particularly since all state actors which have intervened possess their own aspirations in shaping the future of that particular country (Haaretz, 2014; Press TV, 2013; Ruthven, 2014; Time, 2015). In some respects, therefore, the issue of humanitarian intervention and its related values base is being abused in order that these political aspirations can be furthered (Dagher, 2014). This aspect, however, is a perpetual factor in the international arena, particularly where realist agendas are taken into consideration (Bayliss & Smith, 2001). One area where international intervention has been encouraged is in relation to ethnic conflict. Kaldor (1998) recognises that the end of the Cold War resulted in an increase in the frequency of ethnically charged conflicts and that these types of conflict have been offered as a rationale for international humanitarian based interventions In respect of this, Kaldor (1998) argues that the changes that have taken place within conflict dynamics that has resulted in belligerent forces not being constrained by international regulations, including the Geneva Convention protocols, Laws of Armed Conflict or relevant United Nations Charters (Kaldor, 1998) has led to humanitarian values being used as an excuse to further the political aspirations of a number of states. The result of this changed dynamic has perpetuated and has spread to a number of conflict zones around the world.
However, it has led to an increase in the reliance upon conventional forces whose role has been to offer peace keeping and security services to non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in support of their own operations. In this respect it is noted that Christoplos, Longley, and Slaymaker (2004) consider that the intervention strategies have also altered in recent years. Here, they note thatA the underpinning intervention programmes now seek to promote humanitarian values and that this is evidenced by the creation of a tripartite doctrinal system which now utilises areas of national and personal rehabilitation; added to this are post war recovery programmes that are intended to help redevelop both the state and social infrastructures; finally there is the central issue of relief programmes that seek to maintain the fabric of civil society during crisis periods. For Seybolt (2007) this perspective adds weight to any argument that promotes the possibility that military humanitarian interventions can assist NGOs in their duties via the provision of security provisions. However, it is also recognised that adding external military forces into a combat zone has can lead to further complications primarily because military operations possess a potential for using force when necessary (Davidson, 2012; Ministry of Defence, 2011). In promotion of a perspective which says that deployed military forces can utilise force is well grounded in military doctrines. For example the UK Ministry of Defence promotes a policy whereby “The peacekeeper fulfils a mandate with the strategic consent of the main warring parties, allowing a degree of freedom to fulfil its task in an impartial manner, while a sustainable peace settlement is pursued.” (Ministry of Defence, 2011: 1.1). This perspective suggests that it is possible for military personnel whose primary function is to assist NGOs as part of the promotion of humanitarian values is in fact a secondary consideration.
Ultimately the use of military force within humanitarian interventions is a purely political choice that is intended to help reshape the political landscape of the affected region or state in the post conflict environment. With regards to the current Syrian conflict, one can argue that the divergent and conflicting political perspectives and aspirations is a factor which will undermine the potential for any real focus upon the promotion of humanitarian values. Indeed, it is also recognised that this eventuality does little to promote the principles of humanitarianism as argued by the likes of the ICRC (2013). In effect the possibility that military forces can conduct purely military operations, or war phase fighting, during a humanitarian intervention undermines any utilitarian or altruistic claims made by the respective political powers. In its totality this suggests that the aforementioned issue of political realism is both present and ongoing.A A Indeed such an argument can be backed up by a policy review of the recent and ongoing Afghan conflict. A review of UK doctrinal papers promotes this paper’s preference that military operations incorporate the possibility that war fighting, as well as security duties, is a contingent factor in the preparations for any military force. Stabilisation programmes in the Afghanistan intervention occurred in an environment where the UK’s military “had the consent of the host nation government but no other warring party (Afghanistan: Taliban 2001 – present)……..A military force may decide in such situations that the defeat of a specific enemy is essential to the success of the operation.” (Ministry of Defence, 2011: 1.1). Essentially, therefore, in political terms it is feasible that political intentions can undermine any altruistic argument in relation to the deployment of military forces to carry out humanitarian operations.
For some the recent ‘humanitarian’ intervention into Libya is an example of this outcome. The recent UN backed military intervention in Libya was mandated via humanitarian intervention that was intended to provide relief and assistance (United Nations, 2011). The promotion of this intervention was supposed to further the seven values of humanitarian intervention, as promoted by the ICRC (2013) however one can argue that the resultant intervention was mainly politically motivated because there is sufficient evidence to indicate that Gaddafi’s regime had been a long time foe of those states which executed the intervention (USA, UK & France) (Boulton, 2008). In promotion of their intervention, the USA UK, and France had argued that a failure to intervene would result in a humanitarian crisis caused by the perpetuation of conflict. However, Kuperman (2011) argues that the resultant UN Resolution 1973 (United Nations, 2011) created conditions where the intervening military forces could operate beyond the realms of Resolution 1973. These included, for example, allowing the USA, UK, and France to conduct stabilisation operations so that the authority of the Gaddafi regime could be undermined, thereby helping to bring this conflict to a swift conclusion. In layman terms this meant military intervention via war fighting. With regards to this, Kuperman (2011) also argues that Libyan state functions were impacted, including the freezing of its financial and economic assets. It was also argued that the intervening forces of the USA, France and the UK oversaw the deployment of private military contractors whose role was to undertake anti Gaddafi operations thereby seeking to overthrow his regime (RT News, 2012). In effect, the usage of humanitarian justifications for military intervention in conflict can be defined in terms of the actions and justification of the states whose forces have been committed to operate in those areas and regions. In its totality, therefore, the usage of military force as an effective instrument for the promotion of humanitarian values is limited. These limitations can be found within the underlying political rationales that exist within states that are prepared to commit forces for these operations, particularly where these states have an interest in the realisation of a particular outcome. Whilst humanitarian led interventions have become a mainstay of the post Cold War climate, one can argue that the promotion of the seven humanitarian values that are promoted by the ICRC (2013) are undermined by the intervening forces because of their ability to both flout their mandate, as well as their ability to conduct war fighting operations under the guise of humanitarianism. In essence, therefore, one can argue that there are genuine limits to the ability of military forces to promote humanitarian values however these limitations are not factors which states consider when seeking to intervene in any conflict.
Bibliography
Bayliss, J., & Smith, S., (2001), The Globalisation of World Politics. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Boulton, A., (2008), Memoirs of the Blair Administration: Tony’s Ten Years, London: Simon & Schuster. Christoplos, I., Longley, C. and Slaymaker, T., (2004), The Changing Roles of Agricultural Rehabilitation: Linking Relief, Development and Support to Rural Livelihoods, available at https://odi.org.uk/wpp/publications_pdfs/Agricultural_rehabilitation.pdf, (accessed on 17/10/15). Dagher, S., (2014), Kurds Fight Islamic State to Claim a Piece of Syria, (online), available at https://online.wsj.com/articles/kurds-fight-islamic-state-to-claim-a-piece-of-syria-1415843557, (accessed on 17/10/15). Davidson, J., (2012), Principles of Modern American Counterinsurgency: Evolution and Debate, Washington DC: Brookings Institute. Haaretz, (2014), Russia demands Israeli explanation of air strikes in Syria, (online), available at https://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/1.630584, (accessed on 20/10/15). International Committee of the Red Cross, (2013), Humanitarian Values and Response to Crisis, (online), available at https://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jmlz.htm, (accessed on 17/10/15). Kuperman, A., (2011), False Pretence for war in Libya, available at https://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2011/04/14/false_pretense_for_war_in_libya/, (accessed on 17/10/15). Marjanovic, M., (2011), Is Humanitarian War the Exception?, (online), available at https://mises.org/daily/5160/Is-Humanitarian-War-the-Exception, (accessed on 17/10/15). Minear, L and Weiss, T.G., (1995), Mercy Under Fire: War and the Global Humanitarian Community, Boulder: Westview Press. Ministry of Defence, (2011), Peacekeeping: An evolving Role for the Military, London: HMSO. Pattison, M., (2010), Humanitarian Intervention and the Responsibility To Protect: Who Should, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Press TV, (2013), Hezbollah to remain in Syria: Official, (online), available at https://www.presstv.ir/detail/2014/02/10/350058/hezbollah-to-remain-in-syria-official/, (accessed on 20/10/15). RT News, (2012), Stratfor: Blackwater helps regime Change, (online), available at https://www.rt.com/news/stratfor-syria-regime-change-063/, (accessed on 17/10/15). Ruthven, M., (2014), The Map ISIS Hates, (online), available at https://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2014/jun/25/map-isis-hates/, (accessed on 20/10/15). Seybolt, T., (2007), Humanitarian Military Intervention: The Conditions for Success and Failure, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Time, (2015), Iran Looms Over ISIS Fight as Baghdad-Tehran Alliance Moves Into Tikrit, (online), available at https://time.com/3741427/isis-iran-iraq-tikrit/, (accessed on 20/10/15). United Nations, (2011), Resolution 1973, (online), available at https://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sc10200.doc.htm#Resolution, (accessed on 17/10/15). Waxman, M., (2013), Is humanitarian military intervention against international law, or are there exceptions?, (online), available at https://www.cfr.org/international-law/humanitarian-military-intervention-against-international-law-there-exceptions/p31017, (accessed on 17/10/15). Weiss, T., (2012), Humanitarian Intervention, Cambridge: Polity Press.
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What are the Likely Effects of Fracking on Global Energy Security?
Introduction
Hydraulic fracturing ("fracking") is a novel method for extracting oil and natural gas that involves injecting highly pressurised water, sand and chemicals into shale rock deep beneath the Earth's surface (Sica 2015; Holloway & Rudd 2013, p.xi). Commercially viable fracking techniques have been honed over the past two decades in the USA, and have proved to be an effective means by which "difficult to reach resources of oil and gas" can be exploited (BBC News 2013). Fracking is generally agreed to have had a dramatic effect on the price of fossil fuels, leading some to declare a "fracking revolution" (Ruhl 2013). The Brookings Institute estimates that average US gas prices in 2013 were 47% lower than they would have been without fracking. This means that, overall, consumers of gas saved approximately $13 Billion in the period between 2007 and 2013 – a figure that is increasing exponentially as production of fracked fuel increases (Dews 2015). As fracking was pioneered in the USA – a market recently described by McDonald (2014) as "account[ing] for practically all of the world's commercial production" – this paper will base its outlook on the impact of fracking on US energy security. We will begin by looking at the potential opportunities presented by fracking, then turn to the domestic challenges before considering the global impact, which will be split into a critique of the geopolitics and an assessment of the environmental factors raised by the technique.
The potential of fracking
The United States Energy Information Agency estimates that there are approximately 7229 trillion cubic feet of recoverable shale gas reserves globally (EIA-ARI 2013). This figure is likely to increase significantly, given that during this study, the EIA surveyed just 46 regions in 41 separate countries (p.1). For comparison, the Oil and Gas Journal's 2012 "Worldwide look at Reserves and Production" put the total figure of proven recoverable conventional gas reserves at 7074 trillion cubic feet; a figure already smaller than the potential of shale gas, and one that is likely to be dwarfed as further shale exploration yields new gas fields. Although commentators such as Inman (2014) have called the predicted size of potential reserves of shale gas into question, the potential for independent energy production is obvious, and has already been hinted at by the American experience. Between 2005 and 2013, the USA reduced net imports from 10.9 billion cubic feet of natural gas, to just 4.8 billion cubic feet. Over the same period, the wholesale price of gas collapsed from a high of $8.79 to a low of $3.71. Some experts expect the USA to become a net exporter of natural gas as soon as 2018 (Oil and Energy Trends 2013). Chief economist and Vice President of BP, Christof Ruhl (2013), predicts that, in a short space of time, the USA will also replace Saudi Arabia as the world's largest energy producer. Although turbulence in the price of gas is not solely down to increased supply (and is presently exacerbated by a global economic slowdown), fracking has two important benefits for the energy security of countries with reserves of shale gas:
- They are insulated from fluctuations in global price such as those found between 2005 - 2013; and
- The risk of sudden, unexpected geopolitical events impacting on supply is greatly mitigated.
Similar potential benefits are open to other nations with reserves of shale gas, which perhaps explains why countries such as the United Kingdom, which could supply its entire gas needs for the next 50 years by extracting just 10% of its estimated reserves, are so keen to expand their onshore fracking activities (Cooper, Stamford & Azapagic 2014).
Domestic challenges of fracking
Fracking is not without its critics. In a major survey of media portrayals, Groat & Grimshaw (2012) found that two-thirds of stories across all forms of news media in the USA were negative. They go on to criticise the fact that that less than a quarter of all stories made any reference to scientific research on the issue. The UK, where the government has shown a commitment to developing fracking that could make it the second major economy to follow the lead of the USA, has seen major public objection to fracking, sparked in part by a number of earthquakes that were attributed to drilling activities (BBC News 2011). Others have highlighted drinking water contamination, air pollution, and limited regulation (meaning wells can be constructed on church grounds and schools) as major criticisms of fracking in the USA (Goldberg 2013). Holloway & Rudd (2013 p.126) reject many of these criticisms, noting that no link had been found linking fracking to reports of groundwater contamination. They cite a major study by the University of Texas, which concluded that "many problems ascribed to hydraulic fracturing are related to processes common to all oil and gas drilling operations" and that "any reports of contamination can be traced to above-ground spills or other mishandling of wastewater produced from shale gas drilling, rather than from hydraulic fracturing" (Holloway & Rudd, p.126). These justifications seem disingenuous; the issues identified are a direct consequence of fracking, even if they are not unique to it as a form of energy extraction. Over 15 million Americans now live within a mile of an oil or gas well, a figure likely to skyrocket as more wells are constructed, especially if densely populated nations such as the UK commence drilling operations (Gold & McGinty 2013). As fracking is a technology that brings production closer to communities, it is imperative that the industry do more to address these issues, rather than dismissing them as normal consequences of fossil fuel production. If they do not, they will fail to win over public opinion, which in turn could result in a hostile regulatory regime that could act as a major impediment on the proliferation of fracking worldwide, negating any positive effects on energy security.
The Geopolitical significance of fracking
It is not just the size of potential shale gas reserves that is significant; it is also their global distribution. Presently, Russia tops the current list of nations with proven gas reserves, closely followed by Iran, with Saudi Arabia, Turkmenistan and Venezuela all featuring in the top ten – all nations with questionable human rights records, or a history of animosity towards the USA (Oil and Gas Journal 2012). By contrast, China – with negligible traditional energy reserves – tops the list of technically proven shale gas reserves. Brazil, the USA, and South Africa also feature in the top ten of this list (EIA 2014). This means that fracking has an enormous potential to impact on global energy security. Six out of the top ten companies in the world are involved in the energy sector, and the future of fracking could well impact on their long-term fortunes (Fortune 2014). Large exporters such as Saudi Arabia, Russia, and Venezuela depend on oil and gas exports for their security and standing in the world, and plan their foreign policies accordingly (Orttung & Overland 2011). Control of fossil fuel reserves has been a factor in many global territorial disputes, and is a major motivating factor behind US political and military involvement in the Middle East (Overland 2015). Clearly then, any change to the existing status quo with regards to the production, import, and export of gas is going to have a profound impact on global politics and the future of global energy security. If the USA does indeed become a net exporter of energy, its strategic interest in the Middle East – where it has a huge military presence, and has been directly involved in two recent wars – is likely to wane (Index of US Military Strength 2015, p.117). Some nations that exert their foreign policy objectives through energy are likely to see their influence decline, while others will see potential for their security to improve.
European energy security
At present, relations between Russia, Europe and the USA are strained. As much as a quarter of the EU's gas is imported from Russia, and nearly 80% of it has traditionally travelled in pipes through Ukraine (BBC News 2009). Successive disputes between Ukraine and Russia regarding payment for gas resulted in almost annual cut-offs in European supply over successive winters in the latter half of the decade, causing some governments to declare a state of emergency as schools and factories closed and people struggled to survive the freezing temperatures (Cendrowicz 2009). These cuts in supply were short-lived, but demonstrate how vulnerable European energy security is to geopolitical events beyond its control. The overthrow of pro-Russian president in Ukraine, the Russian annexation of Crimea, consequent European sanctions, and a Ukrainian gas production base that is centred to the east where insurgent fighting continues to wreak its toll all point to major, continued threats to global energy security, and perhaps underline why European nations might want to reconsider their initial reluctance to pursue the option of fracking (Oil and Energy Trends 2014). It is clear that if predictions of shale gas reserves prove accurate, Russian influence on global energy security will be greatly diminished, and a new hierarchical relationship will develop. It is also noteworthy that while Russian influence might decline, two other BRIC nations – China and Brazil – may step onto the stage as global players in the global energy market. Some observers have commented that this could accelerate the USA's decline as a hegemonic superpower; however, with the alluring prospect of energy independence itself, fracking might actually help to revive American fortunes (Dunn & Mcclelland 2013).
Climate Change
Although fracking has the potential to guarantee energy security for many nations, while precipitating the decline of influence for some producers and hastening the rise of others, in the long term, it has the potential to be a retrograde step for energy security. At a time when scientific consensus seems to be that the use of fossil fuels is adversely impacting on the economic and ecologic future of the planet, it seems unfortunate that fracking – with its promise of low cost energy independence – has been developed as a technology. The UK seems almost certain to miss its objectives under the Climate Change Act 2008 of reducing carbon emissions to 80% of 1990 levels by 2050 if it continues to pursue its policy of fracking (Cooper, Stamford & Azapagic 2014). Although carbon taxes could offset the economic consequences of climate change, the political hurdles to implementing such policies have proved challenging to date (Rabe & Borick 2012). Furthermore, carbon taxes will not mitigate against the physical consequences of climate change, which even by conservative 'best case scenario' estimates, is likely to exacerbate food and water security, result in more frequent 'freak' weather events, and mean a rise in sea levels by the middle of the century (Schneider et al 2007). These factors are likely to result in greater instances of conflict, as populations compete for increasingly scarce resources (Scott 2012). As such, the short term benefits to energy security that fracking could bring could eventually contribute to long term global instability as the more serious effects of climate change begin to take effect.
Conclusion
As we have seen, the fracking revolution has the potential to shake up the largely static hierarchical energy relationships that have existed since the end of World War Two. Nations such as the USA and the United Kingdom have the potential to become energy independent within a generation. Growing economies with limited traditional energy reserves such as China have the potential to become energy producers, which, until now, they have largely been excluded from. For the winners, a future of energy independence beckons, which in turn means greater energy security and greater global security. Although there are many benefits, the impact of climate change cannot be ignored. Fracking provides cheap domestic fuel, which in turn means that the point in time at which it becomes economically viable for societies to switch to renewable sources of energy disappears further into the future. This means that, long term, fracking could contribute to increased political volatility and uncertainty, which in turn could result in reduced global energy security. Ultimately, fracking could prove to be a false economy.
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Open Health: a Research Prospectus on HMIS Research
Open Health: A research prospectus on HMIS research
Introduction
Change management decision models based on shifts within the global economic order have forced administrators to seek new systems and relationships of oversight as organizations switch from traditional vertical work relationships to horizontal interactions. Much of the insight built into recommendations toward better change management models has been developed in scientific fields of practice. The interest in management of knowledge by science communities, and especially the integration of practice into localized IT systems has long been promoted by consultants and advisors to those fields, whom look to channels of facilitation as viable strategies toward competition in the context of change. The popularity of IT systems management as strategic model for practice field growth, as well as a core competency for institutional change, is well established. Cost cutting and innovative, IT knowledge sharing networks expand the options of institutions and professionals. Competitiveness now equates with interface with the highest calibre artificial intelligence in advancement of human potential toward global solutions that promise to enhance a new generation in oversight. Andrew Grove, former CEO of Intel once observed that “only paranoid firms survive, primarily because they continuously analyse their external environments and competition, but also because they continuously innovate” (Hitt et al. 1995). Grove's assertions are echoed by many corporate executives, whom have become sold on the constancy of research and development as the single most powerful source of competitive capital in organizations faced with ‘new market' competition. For instance, the equity of ‘value' is a price statement or ‘proposition,' as well as a method of translating brand identity within the market through illustrated performance of a product. For service organizations, structural response to delivery is still inherent to value. Practice settings are environments desire synthetic opportunities to forge alliances between internal and external forces as they navigate against risk. Value increases continuously, and incrementally as capitalization is realized in relation to those activities. Early responses to the local-global equation looked to structural articulation in what became known as ‘matrix organizations that allowed for retention of rational-analytical choice models, with modified response through process-oriented incremental decision. More recent organizational approaches, and especially in capital intensive fields such as IT, offer support for the benefit of incremental decision making with the salient distinction between the form and function of decisions. Content in both cases is driven by challenges to productivity, and executive direction is now more than before forced to consider incremental decision making as strategic option, despite the fact that rational choice inevitably overrides constant reinvention (Tiwana, A. et al. 2006). Responsive to the aforementioned challenges in the emergent healthcare environment, leaders looking to new IT HMIS operations systems are seeking change management solutions that will enable them to forge lean and agile strategic growth models in settings known for fiscal and resource waste. Six Sigma approaches to analysis have allowed businesses to streamline operations through combined methodologies of analysis (Edgeman and Dugan 2008). In the past ten years there has been increased demand for seamless service between hospitals, clinics and multidisciplinary teams concerned with the wellbeing of patients and their families. Healthcare organizations seeking competitive and more efficient options to serving patients now look to IT Healthcare Management Information Systems (HMIS) for optimizing capacity both in terms of finance and in standard of care to patients (Tan and Payton 2010). Despite the upfront costs of planning and implementation that go into introduction of new IT systems into an existing HMIS setting, integrated operations enable the advancement of fiscal and other controls not previously realized due to time lapse, as well as precision in every step of the service provision process from decoupling point between allocations to actual delivery of patient services. If efficiency in information is directly linked to ‘duty of a reasonable standard of care' within hospitals and healthcare institutions, the benefits to those organizations in terms of direction and better control of liability issues through information channels, offers new promise in terms of comprehensive patient care through “patient-centric management systems,” and ultimately sustainable organizational growth (Tan and Payton 2010). The foregoing research proposal outlines the development of HMIS in the medical field of practice in the United Kingdom.
Literature Review
The 1990s marked the dawn of knowledge sharing systems in the space science industry, and the landmark mission deployed by NASA IT engineers in the development of what would come to be known as a Competency Management System (an online system that maps individuals to their competencies). Out of that seed project, the 2005 initiation of the NASA Engineering Network (NEN) was formed under the Office of the Chief Engineer in furtherance of the space agency's knowledge-sharing capacity. Coinciding with a to benchmarked study with U.S. Navy, U.S. Army Company Command, the U.S. Department of Commerce, and Boeing Corporation, the NEN network enables “peers and experts through communities of practice, search multiple repositories from one central search engine, and find experts” (Topousis, D.E. et al. 2009). The research study follows this idea, and proposes to contribute to three (3) bodies of literature pertinent to the field of knowledge sharing: 1) General history of IT integration as change management strategy for advancement of purpose in science; 2) studies on the development of IT networks of practice within the health science community in particularly and the development of heath management information systems (HMIS); 3) literature dedicated to risk mitigation and compliance within legislative policy, and elements of security within institutional networks subject to oversight by chief information officers (CIO). Invitation of recognized Technical Fellows noted in their discipline to facilitate their respective community of practice within the network set the pace for portal integration of human resource tools, such as jSpace. The platform can be utilized as communicator/research source for professional recruitment to projects and permanent roles. Links to related associations and professional societies offer participating fellows and partners access to an integrated contact source of engineers, “while fostering an environment of sharing across geographical and cultural boundaries.” The next step in NASA NEN is incorporation into the larger NASA Enterprise Search, and potential accommodation of oft requested ITAR-restricted information. The extension of the NASA space science knowledge sharing concept has done two things: 1) further the advancement of space science objectives through KMS (Knowledge Management Systems) and PMS (Plan Management Systems) toward design and launch of multinational space missions; and 2) extend the idea of an IT integrated field of scientific practice to other scientists in distinct fields of practice throughout the scientific community (Quattrone and Hopper 2004). The emergent emphasis in organizational theory on IT Healthcare Management Information Systems (HMIS) as presented by Tan and Payton (2010), initiates query into the integration of extended practice setting networks. Interested in the advancement of IT platforms and software driven data bases as solution to change operations in global institutions, the search for approaches that succeed at meeting core competencies through risk reduction and resource maximization are the most sought after technologies for the betterment of the ‘total' organization. The new IT systems offer interconnectivity between operational units within healthcare institutions, and link human intelligence to the logistics data analysis for in-depth insight into the history of expenditures and allocation requests. Some institutions have joined supply chain cooperatives in their region to further enhance the use of network logistics and stem of the flow of fiscal waste – a persistent concern within healthcare organizations – saving literally hundreds of millions of dollars annually (Healthcare Finance News, 2010). Healthcare Management Information Systems (HMIS) offer integrated systems platforms and applications to the entire range of chain operations management activities within and between institutions that provide patient care. Consistent with the emergent interests in organizational knowledge sharing networks, healthcare institutions are looking to IT solutions for a number of reasons, and especially the growing impetus toward: 1) healthcare provider connectivity; 2) increased focus in tracking and management of chronic diseases; 3) heightened patient expectations regarding personal input in care process; 4) market pressures driving hospital-physician alignment; and 5) advances in the technological facilitation of systems operability in this area (Tan and Payton, 2010). Design of systems architecture from institution to institution still varies, as data management and interconnectivity may be distinct and also subject to existing ‘legacy systems' issues that might be incorporated in the new HMIS model. The core competency of HMIS is the more ephemeral side of systems planning which is the knowledge sharing path – where data and information become meaningful. The other key components to consideration of HMIS integration include: 1) the basic hardware, software and network schema; 2) process, task and system(s); 3) integration and inoperability aspects; and 4) user, administration and/or management inputs and oversight. For instance, IT HMIS designed to enhance the networking of financial operations in hospital institutions must be especially responsive to the growing complications in the US insurance industry as product options such as bundled claims force institutions into synchronous attention to patient' demands. Convenience and competitive pressures to supply those services supersede mere fiscal allocation in service to patients amidst conglomerate interests in the healthcare industry (Monegain, 2010). Chief Information Officers (CIO) are critical to the administration and planning of HMIS systems, and in particular, security measures and oversight of privacy protections. Unlike Chief Executive Officers (CEO) that serve as the primary responsible party for general governance, the CIO is more directly involved in the scientific praxis of organizational management; as precision in systems that retain data for record, and for analysis toward organizational growth are in their hands. CIOs are increasingly drawn into this external environment based on the nature of transactional relationships, as they are called upon to find IT systems of accountability within their own institutions (cio.com, 2010). Regulation of computer and telecommunications activities in the UK's Computer Misuse Act (CMA) of 1990 has impact in regard to the stipulations pertaining to definitions of personal and professional use of HMIS by employees, partners and clients (Crown Prosecution Service Advice on CMA 1990).
Aims and Objectives to the study
The aim of the research is to study successful approaches to knowledge sharing, risk reduction and resource maximization through HMIS IT systemization. The most sought after technologies are those that expedite a ‘total' organizational approach to information management. The goal of the research is to conduct a Six Sigma analysis of an IT based knowledge sharing infrastructure of a scientific community of practice. In spite of the nascent value of space science as a critical beginning to baseline assumptions the study proposes to survey the development of HMIS in the medical field in the United Kingdom. The three (3) core objectives to the study on healthcare IT infrastructure will be: 1) review of HMIS infrastructure as it is understood by healthcare administration in contract with systems engineers; 2) fiscal accountability is the second priority objective toward the goal of projected and actual capitalization on IT systemization in the practice setting; and 3) the significance of quality control of those systems in relation to government reporting and policy.
Methodological Consideration
Methodologies to the study will be implemented toward building a portfolio of practice on HMIS in the British healthcare industry based on data drawn from the following sources:
- Survey of lead UK health institutions
The structured Survey instrument will be comprised of (50) questions and will be circulated in the HMIS practice community in the UK. A series of open queries at the end of the Survey will offer an opportunity to CIOs and IT administrators to contribute unique knowledge about their systems.
- Interviews with CIO
Depth content to the research will be drawn from two (2) semi-structured Interviews with CIOs selected from information obtained from data generated in the Survey. Findings on the development of HMIS onsite in those chosen institutions will open up a new field of query into the actual challenges faced in planning, implementation and updated maintenance of architectural systems as new enterprise systems come on the market. Policy and procedure will also be discussed, as well as extended referral networks. 3. Internet Research a. Patient Research. Review of patient interface with HMIS portals at lead organizations and community healthcare providers. b. Aggregate Index. Research Data collected from healthcare industry indexes toward furtherance of trend analyses. c. Risk Management. Recommended best practices, policy and security protocol toward risk management of fiscal information, institutional and staff privacy and non-disclosure of patient record will be investigated. Review of open source software as protective measure as well as sufficient firewalls, intrusion detection, and encryption. Sources and Acquisition of Data Acquisition of data on the study will be conducted in three phases: 1) Survey; 2) Interviews; and 3) Internet. Phases 1 and 2 will focus on CIO and other lead IT staff in selected UK healthcare institutions, and incorporate information from the two instruments, as well as augmentation of the research with information on engineer consultancy relationships that they have worked with, and institutional documentation on HMIS and unit databases. Phase 3 will be conducted consecutive to the latter two phases of the research toward supplementation of policy and other details to the project. Data Analysis Examination of standardized taxonomies to open source database repositories used in HMIS will serve to further data analysis: Customer Relations Management (CRM); Electronic Health Records (EHR); Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP); Personal Health Records (PHR); and Supply Chain Management (SCM) dedicated to total operations management control, patient referral and professional knowledge sharing (Tan and Payton, 2010). Analysis of data on the project will be based on a Six Sigma solutions oriented approach. Table 1
| Approach |
Description |
ITIL Area |
| Charter | Defines the case, project goals of the organization | Policy and Procedures |
| Drill Down Tree | Process Drill Down Tree | Engineering Process & Unit Oversight |
| FMEA | Failure Modes & Effects Analysis | Risk Assessment |
| QFD | Quality Function Deployment | Compliance |
| SWOT | Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats | Planning and Implementation (ongoing for future inputs) |
| Trend Analysis | Aggregate Narrative | HMIS industry trends |
Table 1: Six Sigma methodologies for analysis of HMIS survey, interview and internet archive sources.
References
Computer Misuse Law, 2006. Parliament UK. Available at: https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200809/cmhansrd/cm090916/text/90916w0015.htm#09091614000131 Crown Prosecution Service Advice on CMA 1990. Available at: https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/a_to_c/computer_misuse_act_1990 Edgeman, Rick L. and Dugan, J. P., 2008. Six Sigma for Government IT: Strategy & Tactics for Washington D.C. Available at: https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~redgeman/RLE/PUBS/Edgeman-Dugan.pdf Hitt, Black & Porter, 1995. Management. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Prentice Hall. Jones, R.E., et al., 1994. Strategic decision processes in matrix organizations. European Journal of Operational Research, 78 (2), 192-203 Monegain, B. N.C. health system to launch bundled payment pilot. Healthcare Finance News, 22 June 2010. Available at: https://www.healthcarefinancenews.com Quattrone, Paolo and Hopper, T., 2004. A ‘time-space odyssey': management control systems in two multinational organizations. Accounting Organizations and Society 30, 735-754. The imperative to be customer-centric IT leaders (2010). CIO.com. Available at: www.cio.com Tan, J. and Payton, F.C., 2010. Adaptive Health Management Information Systems: Concepts, Cases, & Practical Applications, Third Edition. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. Tiwana, A. et al. (2006). Information Systems Project Continuation in Escalation Situations: A Real Options Model. Decision Sciences, 37 (3), 357-391. Topousis, D.E. et al., 2009. Enhancing Collaboration Among NASA Engineers through a Knowledge Sharing System. Third IEEE International Conference on Space Mission Challenges for Information Technology. Pasadena, CA: Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
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Factors and Issues that Influence the Behaviour of Software Engineering Groups
Most presentations on software engineering highlight the historically high failure rates of software projects, of up to eighty percent. Failure under the guise of budget overruns, delivery of solutions not compliant with specifications, late delivery and the like. More often than not, these failure rates are used to motivate the use of software engineering practices. The premise being that if adequate engineering practises were utilised, failure would become more of an exception rather than a rule. Best practise and lifecycles have been proposed and tailored to the various paradigms that the computer and information sciences throw up in rapid succession. There is extensive debate on what works and what does not within academia and without. The consensus being that what is best depends on the problem at hand and the expertise of those working on the problem. A few software engineering group models have been popular in the history of software development. Earlier groups tended to be hierarchical, along the lines of traditional management teams. The project manager in charge did not necessarily contribute in a non-managerial capacity and was responsible for putting together teams, had the last word on accepting recommendations and delegation to team members. Later groups worked around one or more chief-programmers or specialists.
The specialists took charge of core components themselves and were assisted by other group members in testing, producing documentation and deployment. More recently, collegial groups have become common. Here, people with varied specialisations form groups wherein they organise themselves informally by assuming roles as needs arise. The advantage of a particular model over the others becomes evident only in the context of specific projects. The hierarchical model is best suited to relatively large projects that are decomposable into sub-goals that can be addressed by near independent teams. This is usually possible for software tasks that are very well defined, that need reliable and quality controlled solutions, particularly those that are mission critical. A large project may inherently require many people working on it to successfully complete it, if it were to be deployed in multiple sites, for instance. Alternatively, a large group may be assembled to expedite delivery. In either case, structured organisation and well-defined roles facilitate coordination at a high level. A central problem with adding people to expedite delivery, or otherwise, is that the effectiveness of a group does not scale linearly. One person joining another does not mean that they are collectively twice as productive.
More importantly, the contribution of the seventh person in a seven-person group is a fraction of the contribution of the second person in a two-person group. This is due to additional overheads in communication and coordination as group size increases and to the dilution of tasks assigned to individual member. As is evident, this is a problem for any group; however, in very large groups the problem is exacerbated. In hierarchical settings, group members do not have a sense of ownership of the bigger solution. This may be reflected in their productivity. Because of the concentration of decision-making powers to particular individuals according to some hierarchy, the success of processes ultimately lies with them. A lot rides on their ability to pick the best practises and recommendations, delegate effectively and keep track of the bigger picture. In quality-controlled or mission-critical settings, there are not many alternatives to having large hierarchical groups with redundant contributors. Primarily in non-commercial settings, a single specialist engineers a complete software solution. Invariably, the solution being a prototype is accessible only to other specialists.
In addition, it is not designed for general consumption and is put together without going through most recommended processes in software engineering lifecycles. Single programmers tend to practise evolutionary programming. This involves producing a quick working solution followed by repeated reworking of the solution to make it more accessible to the programmer for future review, incremental development and peer review or development. If demand for such a software solution gains momentum, for either its general utility or its commercial viability, the core solution would most likely be adopted for further development by a larger software engineering group. It stands to reason that the core developer, who is most familiar with the solution, retains the last word on further technical development. Other members organise themselves around the chief programmer. In general, some form of incremental development and periodic redevelopment from scratch of software solutions are common regardless of group models. The first incrementally developed solution tends to be the least well-engineered solution and is a patchwork of poorly designed and tightly coupled components. This is a reflection of the difficulty involved in producing quick solutions using new tools and techniques and inexperienced software engineers. Supported by a high immediate cost barrier to reworking solutions, incumbents from pervious software development cycles, spend a lot of their post deployment time in supporting and patching what they produced.
In collegial groups formed in smaller organisations or departments, software engineers assume roles as needs arise. Brainstorming may be carried out by all members and design approved by consensus but development may be carried out by a few individual members, while the others gain feedback from end-users, keep track of competitor solutions and the like. In the initial phases of a software development life cycle, the problem definition, feasibility study and system analysis phases, end users of the system and independent specialists may form part of the group. During the design and implementation phases, a disjoint group of outsiders could merge with the team. The external members may then be invited for their feedback post implementation during the quality assurance and maintenance phases. Generally, best practise suggests that groups should be adaptive or loosely structured during the creative phases and become more structured as the design becomes clearer. Groups with loosely defined structures are the most flexible in adapting to changing user needs. However, the greatest risk to project cancellations and overruns are ill-defined and changing requirements.
Adaptiveness to an extent is crucial. Given that users change requirements so compulsively, lacking adaptiveness completely would make an engineering group not viable. If group size is variable, the learning curve of new entrants must be kept in mind. A project manager hiring additional developers late in the software development cycle, after not meeting some deadline say, must factor in delayed contributions from the newcomers as a result of time taken by them to familiarise themselves with the project and time lost in coordinating their joining the group. Following this, the next most common cause of failure is due to poor planning or management. If the person taking on the role of project manager has poor management or planning skills, the likelihood of which is heightened by the fact that each group member is called upon to serve in diverse capacities, projects are destined to fall over. A number of reasonable software engineering guidelines are ignored by software engineers commonly. When programming, using descriptive names for variables is a good example. A section of program code will immediately make sense to its author for a reasonably long period, when reviewed.
However, if the code were not documented sufficiently, which includes using descriptive variable names, and with the correct intended audience in mind, it would take a considerable amount of time for another programmer to understand what the other had implemented. In the extreme, some programmers obfuscate because they can or to ensure that only they will ever understand what they have written thereby making them indispensable. The potential for doing a half-hearted job of writing code is obvious in that poorly structured and poorly designed code is functionally indistinct from well-structured code and is less demanding a task. If software projects were evaluated only on their functionality, this would not pose a problem but upgrades and patches require someone to review the code and add to it or repair it in the future. The long term cost of maintaining software that is not well designed and documented may rise exponentially as older technologies are phased out and finding people competent to carry out repair and review shrink. In essence, this is an instance of a quality control problem. Uncontrolled quality problems are the third most common cause of cancellations and overruns of software projects. It is convenient to group documentation along with quality control as they should be reviewed in tandem in a software development lifecycle.
The first casualties of a late running project are quality control and documentation. The long-term costs of skimping on either have been illustrated by example above but there are short-term costs as well. In both evolutionary engineering common among specialist-centred groups and component engineering commonly employed by hierarchical groups, the quality of each revision or component affects the quality of subsequent revisions or combined components. The next most common causes of failure are unrealistic or inaccurate estimates and naAve adoption of emerging technologies. The blame for the former rests with both users and planners or project managers. Most engineering groups are unrealistically optimistic about the speed with which they can deliver solutions. Their estimates may be accurate for prototypes.
In actual deployment, conformance to specifications, human-computer interfaces, quality control, training and change management are essential and take time. Users have a poor understanding of how descriptive their specifications are and much too often assume that implementers are contextually familiar with the environments in which they work and intend to use the system. Project managers and implementers have an affinity to emerging technologies ignoring their core competencies that are more likely to be established proven technologies. Success among software engineering groups is a function of planning and execution. The responsibility of planning falls on a project manager. A manager must draw on the best a group has to offer, appreciate software and technical concerns, facilitate communication and coordinate a groups effort.
Enforcing quality standards from the beginning by adopting design and programming guidelines, for example, helps formalise expectations. A project manager with a technical background has the advantage of understanding the position of other technical members and is likely to communicate more effectively with them and has the opportunity of leading by example. Given the emphasis on planning, it is worthwhile noting that it can be overdone. Over-engineering is not ideal engineering. It is often convenient for a single developer to take the lead for coding. Other developers and end-users should concurrently test the developing solution for functionality, usability and quality. Execution in isolation is likely to result in solutions that developers are comfortable with and even proud of but that end-users find lacking. The various stakeholders of the project must be simultaneously and consistently involved throughout the development cycle of software projects.
The greater the communication between specialist designers and specialist implementers, the more successful the group would be in terms of quality and ease of use of solutions. The technical crowd in a software engineering group sees the problem uniquely in terms of simplifying or making more elegant their contribution. The design crowd balances out this perspective by offering an alternative view, which is more likely to be aligned with that held by end-users, uncurtailed by technical considerations. Ultimately, end-users must be given an opportunity to have their say. The solution is theirs. Changing requirements and specifications may be an acceptable excuse from the user's perspective for delays in final solution delivery. Many projects are twenty percent complete after eighty percent of the initially estimated time. More people are brought in to expedite the process, budget overruns follow and sub-par solutions are delivered, albeit, late. Given the historical frequency, project managers should factor in possible requirement changes to arrive at estimates that are more realistic before commencing projects.
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Nuclear Warfare: a Conflict of Deterrence
Nuclear warfare is often posited as essentially different from conventional warfare.A Certainly they are conceived of as so, since dominating the cultural imagination in the Second World War (Gamson, 1989, 2).A Dozens of films have been made depicting disasters caused by nuclear war in the past few decades, especially when the threat was most imminent during the cold war, and these films generally depict nuclear weapons as distinct from other violent weapons of war (Perrine viii, 1998). This differentiation is further mirrored in fiction which heavily suggests that psychologically, nuclear weapons are perceived as different and unique.A But does this psychological classification reflect real differences, or are nuclear weapons simply the most dangerous weapon of war on a continuum of deadly weapons?A Examining the history and the policy trends since the first use of the weapons, I argue that nuclear warfare is different not because the weapons themselves are deadlier, but because their damage is inflicted on all participants in the war; as a result, nuclear states pursue a policy of deterrence through mutually assured destruction (MAD).A To evaluate nuclear war and weapons in comparison with conventional war and weapons and determine their difference, if any does exist, I will use two main criteria.A First, I will examine the violent capabilities of nuclear weapons compared to war fought with conventional weapons and second, I will examine how these weapons are interpreted and used in international relations.A I conclude that the difference between conventional warfare and nuclear warfare is not the weapons themselves, as the damage in terms of destruction of lives, infrastructure, and landscape can be matched by other forms of violence; however, the way in which nuclear weapons perform this violence causes them to be interrupted differently, and this different interpretation means that the way political entities view and use them is also different. Nuclear weapons are understood to be distinct from conventional weapons precisely because of their increased destructive capacity, a capacity which negates the goal of warfare.A Here, war is seen as a tactic used for the purpose of gaining power in a struggle between organised political groups. As such, it is a political instrument, “the resort to force to advance political purposes and to settle political conflicts between sovereign communities” (Cohen and Lee, 1986, 9).A In a rational political system, in order to go to war, the party waging it must believe that the end result will be conditions so preferable to the pre-war ones that they justify both the risk and the cost of war.A In short, “the object of war is to attain a better peace.A Victory in the true sense implies that the state of peace, for one’s people, is better after the war than before” (Hart 1974, 353).A If nothing can be gained by war, then it is illogical to wage. Because nuclear warfare has the distinct possibility of destroying whole continents, it can be said it is distinct from conventional war. Moreover, the threat of its use can be utilised as an effective diplomatic tool in a way that conventional war cannot really match. This notion provides the foundations behind the theory of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) which assumes that the threat of global devastation is sufficient to deter states from conflict (Sokolski 2004, v). MAD also supports the notion that the possession or development of these weapons gives a state power, however it would be illogical for such a state to utilise them.
For example, India views its official defence policy as “a doctrine which expressly calls for deterrence by threat of putative retaliation” via their nuclear force (Sokolski 2004, 293).A If India were to be attacked by nuclear weapons, so long as India still retained the possibility of striking back with its own weapons – a distinct possibility as the technology stands today – then its counter-attack would be destructive enough to the aggressor as to nullify the original aims.A In short, to a rational actor, nuclear warfare would never be worth the risk, and therefore, it can be suggested that possessing destructive weapons is the key to peace. Unfortunately, the counter to this theory argues that nuclear weapons are not a special kind of weapon, and simply function as a deterrent today because they are the latest weapon.A Indeed, there is a history of other weapons which have also been seen as destructive enough to destroy the aims of war.A In the escalation of violence during World War II for example, the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were only marginally more horrific in terms of destruction of life and property than the firebombing of Tokyo and Dresden which were conducted through the use of so-called conventional weapons (Leviton 1991, 252). Moreover, the holocaust of Nanking by Japan early in the war certainly wrought similar levels devastation though it took the matter of days rather than seconds (Chang 2012, 15). Looking further back into history, civilisation-ending destruction has always been a consequence of war.A When the Golden Horde of the Mongols attacked the northern Chinese Jin, the most advanced and populated cities in the world at the time, the death toll was in the millions as the Mongols ground the cities into dust.A Moreover, at the time, it also appeared that death on that scale was both unprecedented and unlikely to occur again. The scale of this attack is demonstrated by this account from Arab historian Ibn al-Athir (1160-1233) “a tremendous disaster such as [this] had never happened before…It may well be that the world from now until its end…will not experience the like of it again” (Burgan 2009, 27).A Looking back even earlier to the Punic Wars, Carthage was destroyed with the Roman equivalent of weapons of mass destruction: salt sewn into the ground to prevent life from ever emerging again (Cornell, 2012, 443).A Biological and chemical pathogens are newer, but equally deadly and fast-acting: mustard gas, for example, became taboo after its effective use for mass-slaughter by the Germans in World War I (Price 1997, 61).A This historical overview shows that the deadliness of nuclear weapons in terms of capacities to destroy civilisations and their civilian populations is not unique. While the decades of research and development since Hiroshima and Nagasaki have certainly amplified the deadliness of the weapons, their capability to kill is not unique. What has changed from the days of Carthage, though, is the speed at which this destruction is done.A This is because a state, once the victim of a nuclear attack, can possibility still retain the ability to launch a nuclear retaliation, and in so doing, create enough to do mass destruction to the victor.A Complete destruction has always been a possible outcome in warfare, but the ability to win a war and still be destroyed to the point that life is no longer sustainable is unique to modernity. As nuclear scholar Cohen writes, “a state in a post-nuclear war would not be which political system would survive, but whether any would” (Cohen 1986, 9). This categorical difference of MAD makes nuclear warfare an irrational act, waged only by a nihilist system unconcerned with its own existence.A However, these weapons obviously play a role in the international system.A There are two reasons for this.A First, the weapons are not ubiquitous; only a few developed countries have the weapons, giving them a clear military advantage over non-nuclear states.A So long as this advantage remains, deterrence via mutually assured destruction is not possible.A This is one of the reasons which nuclear countries refuse to completely destroy their arsenals; moreover, it becomes a reason for non-nuclear states to pursue such weapons. “States will seek to develop nuclear weapons when they face a significant military threat that cannot be met through alternative means” (Sagan 2007, 54). Put simply, if two states are in conflict, and neither possess a weapon which will cause mutually assured destruction, the weaker state will seek such a weapon as an insurance policy.A At the same time, third party states both with and without such weapons will oppose the acquisition, as expanding the nuclear club is only an advantage to the state seeking admittance. Because having nuclear weapons is so important for deterrence, states in possession cannot abandon them nor publically claim that they will not use these weapons.A A This how the paradox of nuclear deterrence is reached.A States seeking to avoid nuclear warfare must therefore make a credible commitment to use them; if such a commitment cannot be made, then other states will not be afraid of attacking.A As Cohen summarizes: “threatening to do what would serve no political purpose [launch a war of mutually assured destruction] is the only way to avoid nuclear war” (Cohen 1986, 10). This principle of nuclear deterrence leads to brinksmanship behaviour, where nuclear powers continually assert their readiness to use the weapons.A A Such behaviour can be observed especially during the Cold War, where the USSR and the USA both threatened nuclear war precisely because they did not wish it to occur.A In the Cuban Missile Crisis, for example, both states demonstrated their willingness to use weapons; it was because their wiliness was so well demonstrated that neither side felt free to use them (Trachtenberg 1985, 142). Had either power capitulated early, the other would have felt free to attack.A Since the end of the Cold War, brinkmanship behaviour exists only between actively hostile states.A The USA, not having a serious rival in the unipolar international system, no longer needs to demonstrate its wiliness to use its arsenal.A Where brinksmanship is seen is between states such as India and Pakistan, where both states have reason to engage in conflict and both possess nuclear weapons (Kroenig 2013, 147).A A Adding to MAD, there are two other factors which determine nuclear behaviour: psychological categorisation of nuclear weapons as worse and more inhumane than other weapons, and the existence of non-rational actors with the possibility of becoming nuclear powers.A The psychologically distinct category of nuclear weapons arose in part due to the significant pushback against the weapons after the Second World War.A While the violence and destruction caused by the bombs was not significantly worse, as I earlier argued, the newness and manner of destruction caused them to be singled out for condemnation (Tannenwald 2007, 74). As a result, political leaders have come to see them as taboo – that using them or even advocating using them is a breach of ethnics, and that discussing using them in a democratic setting will prohibit election (Wittner 2009, 49).A Unfortunately, the existence of a nuclear taboo creates a problem for democratic politicians who must, by the principles of MAD, continue to pursue brinkmanship behaviour. As a result, a type of doublespeak emerges from nuclear powers.A In order to maintain the image that they are humanitarian and with the added purposes of maintaining relative military power by preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, they must condemn nuclear force.A At the same time, however, these leaders must continually suggest that they are willing to use the weapons if necessary (Bundy 1988, 536). Finally, in the post-September 11th world, nuclear powers have become increasingly concerned with the actions of non-rational or non-state actors who might use not operate by the principles of MAD.A Because non-rational or non-state actors have nothing to lose, they therefore have no reason to prevent them from using such a weapon.A As a result, nuclear policy of the twenty-first century has focused on containing weapons of mass destruction (Cirincion 2014, 293).A This focus on containing non-state actors is because, should MAD be properly used against other rational states with comparative military power, these actors represent the greatest threat to the nuclear state. In sum, nuclear warfare compared to conventional warfare is not different in terms of the scale of possible destruction inflicted on the losing state.A However, because the destruction occurs much faster and the losing state is capable of inflicting such a serious blow to the victorious state that negates the entire purpose of war, nuclear warfare is unique.A As a result, the weapons have taken on a psychological taboo as well as a commitment by rational actors not to use them, precisely by threatening to use them.A These powers are also eager to see that nuclear weapons do not spread to new states or non-state actors. It is this paradox that has defined military strategy since the Second World War.
Bibliography
Bundy, M. (1988) Danger and Survival. Random House.A New York. Burgan, M. (2009) Empire of the Mongols. Infobase Publishing.
New York. Chang, I.(2012) The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II. Basic Books. 2012. Cohen, A and Lee, S. (1986) Nuclear Weapons and the Future of Humanity: The Fundamental Questions. Rowman and Littlefield. Totowa, New Jersey. Cornell, T. (2012)The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). Routledge. London and New York. Gamson, W. and Modigliani, A. (1989) Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach. American Journal of Sociology. 95(1): 1-37. Hart, B.H. (1974) Strategy.
The New American Library.A New York. Kroenig, M. (2013) Nuclear Superiority and the Balance of Resolve: Explaining Nuclear Crisis Outcomes. International Organization67(1): 141-171. Perrine, T. (1998) Film and the Nuclear Age: Representing Cultural Anxiety.
Taylor and Francis. New York & London. Price, R. (1997)The Chemical Weapons Taboo. Cornell University Press. New York. Sagan, S. (2007) Why Do States Build Nuclear Weapons: Three Models in Search of a Bomb.
International Security. 21(3): 54-86. Sokolski, H. (2004) Getting Mad: Nuclear Mutual Assured Destruction, It’s Causes and Practices. Strategic Studies Institute. Trachtenberg, M. (1985) The Influence of Nuclear Weapons in the Cuban Missile Crisis. International Security. 137-163. Wittner, L (2009). Confronting the Bomb: A Short History of the Nuclear Disarmament Movement. Stanford University Press. New York.
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Management Information Systems Report London Olympics 2012
Management Information Systems Report London Olympics 2012
This report analyses the need and the reasoning for a management information system for the security department during the Olympics London 2012. This report looks at the functions of the security department and how they will benefit from an effective information management system. Furthermore, the report discusses how management information systems are used for decision making and the importance of implementing such systems within any organization.Executive summary
One of the most fundamental functions in any organization is the decision making process. When one considers the economy we face today, many organizations come to appreciate the importance of being able to challenge competitors, gain advantages and make intelligent use of their resources. The core element of this is the process of making decisions. Information can be central in achieving management goals successfully. To facilitate decision making it is imperative that managers have the correct information at the correct time to overcome the gap between needs and prospects. Furthermore to aid improvements in communication of information adequate management information systems (mis) are indispensable. Thus it is vital to have an appreciation of the management information systems used in an organization and have effective integration, by all levels of management. It is only then that there will be effective, profitable and constructive decision making.Terms of reference
On the instruction of the senior manager, the security department was asked to evaluate and analyse the requirements for the duration of the London Olympics 2012. Details of the importance of information required and detailing what information will be required plays an important role in the reporting back to the senior manager.Introduction
Regardless of the nature of an organization, every organization is filled with information. The information content of organizations is what makes the business function. The role of information in an organization is crucial. Information is important in order to allow for an organization to plan, control, measure performance, record movements and assist with decision making. Management information systems are the conversion and collaboration of this information, from both internal and external data sources into a format which is easily communicated and understood by managers at all levels. Ensuring that information is well structured and effectively stored allows ease of access and timely and effective decision making. Larry long and nancy long (2005, p. 370) describe an information system as: “a system is any group of components (functions, people, activities, events, and so on) that interface with and complement one another to achieve one or more predefined goals” (donald, 2005). Information system may also be considered to be a generic reference to a technology-based system that does two things: providing information processing capabilities and providing information people need to make better, more informed decisions (donald, 2005). Management information systems are the result of a combination of internal and external sources; they provide a means by which data/ information can be easily manipulated, stored, amended etc. Furthermore, management information systems coalesce all the essentials which assist in the decision making process. Security is by no means limited to any one aspect of an organization, particularly when on consider an event as large and as globally involving the London Olympics – 2012. For any organization, security cover the physical security of those involved, security of buildings and offices and security if information technology, both physical equipment and cyber security. Assistant commissioner chris allison released a brief on the security issues and concerns surrounding London 2012; his brief included all the ordinary security concerns, such as terrorism and petty crime, but also the danger of online ticket scams, potential protesters hijacking olympic websites and also the more sinister criminals (hervey, 2010). The overall vision for the London 2012 olympic games and paralympic games, agreed by the olympic board is, ‘to host an inspirational, safe and inclusive olympic games and paralympic games and leave a sustainable legacy for London and the uk' (London2012, 2010). In order to achieve this there any many threats and many angles from which threats can occur which need to be taken in to consideration. Furthermore, in order to manage and ensure security the information systems implemented must allow for effective decision making prior to the event and most importantly in the event of an untoward happening.Findings and analysis
The security department cannot be limited to one specific function. The security department, especially for London Olympics 2012, will involve the handling of many aspects of potential threats to the people and systems involved for the Olympics. There are two primary areas which the security department will be responsible for. Firstly, cyber security and secondly the security of the public.Cyber security
As technology, its uses and abuses expand at hasty rates, so does the level of threat faced by organizations and their information systems. Information technology forms an important feature of the information systems in place today. Information systems define what needs to done or managed and the information technology aspect is how this is done. Therefore, technological advancements and the increase in their abuse is a major threat where London Olympics 2012 is concerned. A case study by students of the pennsylvania state university looked into some of the major threats which organization face in the form of it threats. These included; wireless network security, cryptography, access control, privacy control, risk management, operating system security, including server threats, vulnerabilities and firewalls. These are just a handful of examples (bogolea & wijekuma, n.d.). Amongst these examples and besides these examples are many others which are an easy cause for concern for London Olympics 2012. For any organization it is imperative to exercise control over their computer based information systems. London 2012 needs to ensure that the computer based systems, those which rely on it are protected from threats, as the cost of errors and irregularities that may arise in these systems can be high and may even challenge the very survival of the event. An organizations ability to survive can be severely undermined through corruption or destruction of its database; decision making errors caused by poor-quality information systems; losses incurred through computer abuses; loss of computer assets and their control on how the computers are used within the organization (mandol & verma, 2004). Cyber security expert professor peter sommer of the London school of economics warned that computer security would be extremely important during the games (hervey, 2010). A case study which looks at the tragic death of two boys 18, and 10 years of age discusses how cyber security was the issue in relation to the gasoline leak of olympic pipelines pipeline (abrams & weiss, n.d.). This is an example of the devastation to human life which cyber threats can cause, and when one considers this on the scale of London 2012, it becomes clear the number of people depending on optimum security. In order to combat this threat, information needs to be obtained from both internal and external sources. External information may include information from professionals in the cyber security industry to information from intelligence agencies. Terrorism is as much of a cyber-threat as is the computer virus or any other infection. Information systems will only be able to cope with and combat these threats by ensuring they all well informed through risk assessments of potential dangers. Furthermore, in order to overcome any unexpected threats contingency planning forms an essential element of information systems development. Risk assessment is an important step in a risk management procedure. Risk assessment is the determination of the quantitative or qualitative value of a risk related to an actual situation and a recognized threat. Maroochy water services, australia, are an organization a world apart from London olympic 2012, however for the purpose of their cyber security improvement program; risk assessment establishment played a key role (abrams & weiss, 2008). This example shows that important of risk assessments if by no means limited by industry, size of organization, or any other feature for that matter. Risk assessments provide a means for any organization to help avoid potential threats through prior consideration. In addition to information required for a risk assessment, is the information required for a contingency plan. A contingency plan is a plan of action for if things were to go wrong. It is a backup plan. In order to overcome any type of disaster information must be collated into a contingency plan. This would again form an essential part of the information systems, as it would be crucial in the event of a disaster.People
London Olympics 2012 will see several thousands of people from all over the globe in London. Amongst visitors will be players, key visitors and reporters. Those visiting, and then those who already reside in the uk, accumulate to an increase in population, and thus there is a risk of increase in crime. The crime can range from petty crime, to terrorism. The common factor amongst all, is that people need to be protected. Security has been a crucial concern at the Olympics since the killing of 11 israeli athletes and coaches at the 1972 munich games. Olympic planners have ramped up security following the september 11, 2001, attacks in the united states (wilson, 2010). Inefficient management of the people involved in the Olympics and the public, can have devastating effects. This is a major concern during and time and for a city where terrorism is a real and potential threat. In order to be able to implement information systems which can cope with, and appreciate the requirements with regards to security, information needs to collated from many sources. First of all, predictions are one of the very first decision making elements which need to be fulfilled by an information system in this situation. Information regarding the number of athletes expected to be present during the Olympics, statistics from previous olympic games will be required regarding the number of spectators/visitors the country had, and finally the number of security staff and resources available at present. By means of prediction and analysis through a computer being able to protect and serve the public can be achieved. The information system may be used to obtain information concerning the number of staff which will be required to patrol the streets. The number of security staff which will need to be put in to place to sufficiently protect the athletes and their trainers. Also, the locations which are expected to be busiest can be recognized, and thus will require more staff and concentration of cctv cameras. In addition to predictions, is the actual information which will need to be included in an information system, this is information about the number of police officers, or security guards in other areas, or cities besides London that can assist in providing security in this situation. This information may well form a part of the contingency planning. Where cctv cameras are concerned, or access controls, id badges etc there is the need for information systems to collate and manage all this information. Systems will be need to record information of who accessed which area or building at which time for access/ id cards, cctv will need to keep a recording of all activities captured, and there will be the need for databases to log people working for the period of the Olympics and athletes. This information will help to deter crime, provide an element of security and protect people.Conclusions
Information systems come in not set type or standard. They are the collation of several information sets to provide a well-integrated system used to make decisions. The London Olympics 2012 are like no other organization, and are on a scale grander and vast the most other organizations deal with. It is this grandness and this large scale involvement of people, which in turn increases the risks and potential threats. London Olympics 2012 is an enormous event and is expected to employ several thousands of people. And furthermore have several thousand spectators, reporters etc. An effective and accurate management information system is essential in order to ensure that the city hosting the event is able to effectively plan, control, record people and protect systems. Hudson bank managed to overcome the problems it faced with adaptation of its information system, some of this was done using off the shelf software and the majority through establishment of customer requirements and communication essentials (anon., 2008). The security department is involved with many people and many types of threats; the most important two being, securing people and securing systems. Cyber threats can not only damage systems, but even cease functioning of the event. In order to avoid this it is important that the potential risks are assessed, all that can be done to avoid them striking is done and contingency plans are set for action. Another important aspect is protecting people. In order to do more staff would be required, police, community support, security guards etc. This is a large amount of shifting people around, staff from other cities, new recruits etc. Therefore it is vital that this information is managed efficiently. The information systems should be able to cope with large numbers of peoples and provide effective and accurate predictions and decision making results. As with all information systems, the number of information sources will need to extensive in order to provide optimum results.Recommendations
Taking in to consideration the need and scope of the management information systems for the Olympics in London 2012, particularly the security departments' involvement and requirements the following recommendations are made:- The security department need to ensure that all staff involved with the use of the information systems for them is full trained. Any glitch can have dire effects on the rest of the system and ignorance of any warnings of threats can also be horrific in consequence. Training is not only limited to the staff working with the systems, it is also important that staff working with people are trained to handle a large number of people, overcome any problems, identify potential threats, maintain the cooperation of people in the event of a disaster etc.
- Risk assessments and contingency plans should be in place for each and every aspect of security. Furthermore, all staff should be made aware of both of these reports, particularly contingency planning. This will only help them do their job better and overcome any disasters. Informing staff will provide a more thoroughly aware work force and maintenance of security in the event of a disaster.
References
Abrams, m. & weiss, j., 2008. Malicious control system cyber security attack case study. Case study. Australia: maroochy water services. Abrams, m. & weiss, j., n.d. Bellingham, washington, control system cyber security case study. Case study. Anon., 2008. Banking on customer service. New jersey: hudson bank. Bogolea, b. & wijekuma, k., n.d. Information security creation. Case study. Pennsylvania: the pennsylvania state university. Donald, a., 2005. Mastering information management. Prentice hall. Fitzpatrick, k., Fujimoto, y., Hartel, c. & strybosch, v., 2007. Human resource management: transforming theory into innovative practice. Malaysia: pearson australia group pte ltd. Hervey, l., 2010. Sky news. [online] available at: hyperlink "https://news.sky.com/skynews/home/twin-terror-threat-to-London-Olympics-security-expert-warn/article/201003415579707" https://news.sky.com/skynews/home/twin-terror-threat-to-London-Olympics-security-expert-warn/article/201003415579707 [accessed 16 august 2010]. London2012, 2010. London 2012 sustainability policy. [online] London 2012 available at: hyperlink "https://www.London2012.com/documents/locog-publications/London-2012-sustainability-policy.pdf" https://www.London2012.com/documents/locog-publications/London-2012-sustainability-policy.pdf [accessed 6 august 2010]. Mandol, p. & verma, m., 2004. Formulation of it auditing standards. Case study. China: national audit office. Wilson, s., 2010. Yahoo news. [online] available at: hyperlink "%20https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20100806/ap_on_sp_ol/oly_London2012_security" https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20100806/ap_on_sp_ol/oly_London2012_security [accessed 16 august 2010].Bibliography
Http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20100806/ap_on_sp_ol/oly_London2012_security [accessed 16 august 2010].Cite this page
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The Main Differences between Classical Realism and Neo-Realism
Introduction
Realism has become a foremost theory within international relations over six decades. Its contemporary construction is attributed to Hans Morgenthau and his work in the late 1940s. Morgenthau utilised previous works from scholars and strategists, which include, Ancient Greek scholar Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes and his notions of the anarchic state, and the 1939 work of E.H Carr. Realism became the primary theory as the discipline of International Relations blossomed, forming political hypothesis based on its philosophies, such as Real Politik. As International Relations expanded as a discipline with Realism at its centre the theory become reformed. Kenneth Waltz succeeded in becoming the father of Neo-Realism in the same way Morgenthau had done with Realism thirty years prior.
This resulted in a schism in the Realist theory between classic Realism and structural (neo) Realism. The purpose of this essay is to investigate this split and to distinguish the major differences of the two Realist strands. These theories are vast volumes of work that have been considered by the brightest minds of discipline for several decades, the salient features of the two theories discussed in this text will offer just a glimpse into their philosophies. Investigation to compare the differences of the two shall be split into two parts, firstly examining the theoretical base and highlighting the noticeable distinctions. The second part will conceptualise these points in a practical sense, attaching them to historical events predominantly from the twentieth century.
Theoretical
Morgenthau’s key principles of Realism consider states as individuals, a 'unified actor.' One state represents itself, and these states are primary in international relations. Internal politics and contradictions are irrelevant as states pursue interests defined by power. Power, is a further key proponent of Morgenthau's paradigm, he believed it central to human nature and therefore state actors. Morgenthau considered human nature as corrupt, dictated by selfishness and ego, resulting in a dangerous world constructed by egotistical greedy actors. Thus Realism possesses at its core a very pessimistic outlook of constant threat and danger, logically therefore Realism submits as one of its fundamental considerations that state actors are driven by survival and the need for greater dominance and power to create a favourable balance of power and decreasing the actors potential to diminish. (Gellman, 1988). Realists consider these attitudes to consume national interest, trumping any other concern.
Self-help becomes a necessity. Reliance or trust of other actors is foolish as Machiavelli describes - “today’s friend is tomorrow’s enemy” (Morgenthau, 1948). Realisms success and prominence in international relations naturally exposed it to a series of critiques. Authors and scholars disagreed with its ideological theory and often advocated alternative theories. These included a Liberalist outlook that promotes the importance of democracy and free trade, while Marxists believe international affairs could be understood as a class struggle between capital and labour. Other theories derided the lack of morality, collectivism and simplicity in Realism.
Despite it retaining several of the basic features of classical Realism, including the notions that states are primary unitary actors and power is dominant. Neo-Realism provided criticism of the classic paradigm. Structural Realism directed attention to the structural characteristics of an international system of states rather than to its components (Evans and Newham, 1998). Kenneth Waltz detaches from Morgenthau’s classic Realism suggesting it to be too ‘reductionist’. He argues that international politics can be thought of as a system with a precisely defined structure, Realism in his view, is unable to conceptualise the international system in this way due to its varying limitation, essentially due to its behavioural methodology. (Waltz, 1979) Neo-Realism considers the traditional strand as being incapable of explaining behaviour at a level above a nation state.
Waltz is described as offering defensive version of Realism, while John Mearsheimer promotes an offensive consideration of Realism, suggesting Waltz’s analysis fails to chart the aggression that exists in international relations, however they are often considered as one through neo or structural Realism. (Mearsheimer, 2013) The idea, that international politics can be understood as a system, with an exact construct and separate structure, is both the starting point for international theory and point of departure from the traditional Realism. The fundamental concern for Neo-Realists is why do states exhibit similar foreign policy behaviour regardless of their opposing political systems and contrasting ideologies.
The Cold War brought two opposing superpowers that although were socially and politically opposite behaved in a similar manner and weren't separate in their pursuit of military power and influence. Realism in Waltz’s view was severely limited, as where other classic disciplines of international relations. Neo-Realism is designed as re-examination, a second tier explanation that fills in the gaps classic theories neglected. For example, traditional Realists remain adamant that actors are individuals in international affairs, referencing the Hobbesian notion that two entities are unable to enjoy the same thing equally and are consequently destined to become enemies. Whilst, Neo-Realists consider that relative and absolute gains are important and they may be attained by collusion through international institutions. (Waltz, 1979)
Practical
The salient theoretical differences exhibited in the first section will be strengthened in this second section by applying the theory to practical situations in order to enhance the understanding and the degree of separation. As one has discussed, traditional Realists consider that the foundation of international affairs is war, perpetrated by states. A Realist doctrine is exhibited by the actions and musings of Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger, during their time together during Nixon's presidency and with Kissinger's influence on Nixon’s successor, Gerald Ford. While in the theatre of the Cold War, they attempted to maximise American power in order to safeguard American security against fellow actors. Incursions in Vietnam and Korea were designed at a basic level to keep their ideology as the primary superpower and increase American dominance.
Nixon’s presidency was associated also with his administrations dialogue with China, and their keenness to exploit the Sino-Soviet split in order to tip the balance of power in America’s favour, all illustrating a class Realist mentality of international relations, that it is constructed entirely between state interactions and a grasp for power. (Nye, 2007) Another example that depicts this mentality is Thucydides work concerning The Peloponnesian War, an often-utilised example used by traditional Realists; Thucydides in his works expresses an unrelenting Athenian desire to pursue self-interest, and achieved this through the use of force and hard power. He famously wrote, “The strong do what they have the power to do and the weak accept what they have to accept” (Thucydides, 1972, p402). Thucydides sentiments illustrate the Realist notion of human nature being motivated primarily by power, and it is similar to subsequent wars throughout human history. Colin Gray a modern scholar concurs with the Realist outlook suggesting an inherent human characteristic that still drives states in the same way it did in 400 B.C (Gray,2009). Neo-Realists tend to distance themselves from this notion of a corruptible human nature.
They blame the starting of the Second World War, not on innate human corruptibility, but on the failure to achieve a recognised international system. They disagree with Realist logic that the primary reason for the Second World War was Hitler’s lust to institute his power and influence across Europe. In their estimations the disorder provided by the Treaty of Versailles was principal in throwing the world back into war. Its adoption on the behest of French, British and American states provided the opportunity and the catalyst for the Nazi Party to flourish. Resentment in Germany of the allied powers, coupled with a weak nation unable to recover because of this ‘dictate’ rendered the German economy and military perpetually weak, all contributing to Hitler’s ability to snatch power and consequently produce the elements to start a world war.
The world was failed in Neo-Realist estimations by a lack of substantial system (Jervis, 1994). The response classic Realists provide to Neo-Realists is that their re-worked form of the theory is simply presented in a way that is more structural and scientific but with the core maintaining the original doctrines offered by traditional Realism. Although Neo-Realists do not deny that their ideology is extremely similarIt is an improvement on the original theory offering a more structured and formulated paradigm., but Realists argue those alterations, which include these structural formations is what inhibits the new theory. Richard Ashley is one author that concurs with these sentiments stating traditional Realism, provides an advanced concept of analysis (Ashley, 1984). For example, even if the Treaty of Versailles did create bleak conditions on Germany that incited the Nazi’s upsurge, the fundamental lust for power Hitler exhibited in the extreme was still predominant for starting World War Two regardless of structural factors. This analysis echoes Colin Gray’s opinions regarding the characteristics exhibited from the Peloponnesian War still being relevant in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, and illustrates Realism relevance.
A further crucial difference between the two strands is the role of political belief or governance. Classic Realism has always established this consideration. Hitler, Mussolini, Franco, Hirohito all had what was classed as un-democratic governances. Stalin, with a similar totalitarian system had initially signed a pact with Hitler, it was only the latter’s covetousness for supremacy that scuppered that particular alliance, illustrating the pessimistic nature of traditional Realism, not being able to trust other actors. Conversely, Neo-Realists, led by Waltz concluded that there is no “differentiation of function between different units, i.e. all states perform roughly the same role” (Halliday, 1994). Neo-Realism came at a time where the system had altered from what classic Realism was founded upon, a pre-war world of several great powers. The Cold War heralded a bi-polar system, dominant on nuclear weapons rendering the differing ideologies and political regimes irrelevant, it was the system that prevailed. Furthermore, America propped up highly undemocratic regimes throughout the Cold War in Asia, South America and the Middle East. Suggesting classic Realist arguments of governance systems is incomplete (Merhasimer, 2013).
Traditional Realism witnessed a degree of a resurgence post-9/11, the event itself and the subsequent fallout was deemed textbook of classic Realism. Actors had to employ self-help and act unilaterally to stop attacks and an assault on the states survival. 9/11 produced a real illustration to the strength non-state actors can have on the international relations. Although Neo-Realism maintains the classic theory consideration of state primacy, it does reference non-state actors as relevant in the international system. Additional actors however must adapt to the actions of states Waltz suggests, “When the crunch comes, states remake the rules by which other actors operate.” (Waltz, 1979, p94) Furthermore, America’s democratic crusade dubbed ‘the war on terror’ was viewed as traditional Realism in action, inferring Morgenthau’s consideration of autocracy vs. democracy. However, Neo Realists will reference American support for very non-democratic states, such as its unwavering support for Saudi Arabia as the system still triumphing over the state and its form of governance. The actions of the US tie in with Mearsheimer's offensive Realist outlook to seek hegemony, "great powers recognize that the best way to ensure their security is to achieve hegemony now, thus eliminating any possibility of a challenge by another great power. Only a misguided state would pass up an opportunity to be the hegemon in the system because it thought it already had sufficient power to survive." (Merhasimer, 2001)
Conclusion
In conclusion whilst both strands of Realism remain constant in key areas such as the anarchic state, unitary actors and the importance of Power. Neo-Realism presents a shift away from the traditional theories offering a tangible alternative to the corruptible human nature consideration being the root of the cause conflict, as exemplified aptly by the debate on the outbreak of World War Two. However, the crucial point of departure that Neo-Realism provides is the importance given to the international system over the state, claiming that traditional Realism is inhibited by its methodology, failing to explain behaviour of an entity above the nation state. Neo-Realism allows for co-operation among states at a higher level than Realism permits, this provides an opportunity to succeed in achieving absolute and relative gains. The concept flourished during the Cold War, rejecting Morgenthau's system of governance analysis, suggesting that states behave the same regardless whether it's democratic or not. Neo-Realists still maintain this is relevant. Classic Realists disagree using the events of this century to prove that its methodology was always correct. In Sum, the two differ fundamentally on approach, Neo-Realism seeks to offer a systematic and scientific approach that they believe is lacking in traditional Realism; according to its proponents it complements the original theory by correcting its fallacies, building on classic Realism emphasis on self-interest, power and the state, challenging the human nature concept and behaviour above state level.
Bibliography
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- Mearsheimer, J J, 2013. "Structural Realism," in Rex Warner eds., M. Finlay Translates. International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity, 3rd Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 77-93.
- Mearsheimer, J J, 2001. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. 1st ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Morgenthau , H J, 1948. Politics Among Nations. 1st ed. New York: Knopf.
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- Pearson Longman: New York. Thucydides, 1972. History of the Peloponnesian War M.I Finley eds, Translated by Rex Warner Penguin: London.
- Waltz, K, 2001, Man, the State and War: A Theoretical Analysis. 2nd Revised edition. New York: Colombia University Pres.
- Waltz, K. 2000, ‘Structural Realism after the Cold War’, International Security, 25(1). Waltz, K, 1979. Theory of International Politics . 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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International Cooperation in Kyoto Protocol
International co-operation in Kyoto Protocol.
The environment started to be seen as a serious issue for some during the 1970's. Many politicians at that point in time did not regard the environment as being an important issue, although the oil crisis of 1973 did make people think about pollution and resources. Concern for the environment was manly confined to ecologists and a few fringe environmental groups such as FOTE. However, greater scientific evidence of environmental damage that could seriously damage the future of the planet placed the environment firmly on the global political agenda (Evans& Newnham, 1998, p.149). Although the environment got onto the political agenda it has not proved straightforward to gain full international co-operation over taking meaningful measures to reverse or at least halt environmental damage. Effective co-operation has been delayed by the reluctance of some countries to reduce their pollution levels, as it would mean lowering their prosperity like the United States. Also there is resentment from third world countries being told they should stop their economic development because the West have already used most of the global resources. There are issues concerning who owns the remaining natural resources and who pays for the pollution that that they cause (Bannock, Baxter & Davis, 2003, p.120). Ecological movements are not new to the late 20th century and the early 21st century yet the amount of influence that environmentalists have is greater than ever. There were people and movements opposed to industrialisation due to its social as well at its environmental impact (Eatwell & Wright, 2003, p.231).Ecological movements would usually have far more expansive plans for reversing environmental damage and would not be popular with political leaders, consumers and voters. Politicians rather than ecological movements almost always determine the pace and direction of international co-operation on the environment. The ecological movements have won a partial victory in that the environment looks set to remain on the agenda indefinitely. The difficult part is to make sure that agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol are truly co-operative and effective rather than just meaningless gimmicks by all governments that signed up to it (Eatwell & Wright, 2003, p.250). It was probably no coincidence that modern ecological movements emerged in the West during the 1960s when growing affluence amongst the young middle classes allowed them the chance to think about the global economy and the impact that it had upon the global environment. In the 1960s many people if they thought about the environment at all assumed it meant nothing more or less than making the air and water clean (Hobsbawm, 1994, p. 262). The main political and economic to capitalism, communism may have had different aims to its capitalist rivals yet it still aimed at rapid economic growth. Neither capitalism nor communism were or are intended to be guardians of the environment. However growing knowledge of the damage being caused to the environment would force countries to co-operate with each other especially after the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe (Brown, 2002, p. 240). In the ever increasing consumption of natural resources and increasing levels of pollution arguably intensified the Global Warming problem and would mean that co-operation over the environment would become a major area of contention. For the instance the United States consumption of oil increased by 300 per cent between 1950 and the start of the oil crisis in 1973. The highly ineffective factories of the Soviet Union produced almost as much as the United States for the production of far fewer goods (Hobsbawm, 1994, pp. 252-253). Complacency about the environment started to be lifted during the 1970s eventually leading to international protocols to reduce pollution. The oil crisis of 1973 led to some attempts to find alternatives to fossil fuels although it did nothing in the long term to reduce oil consumption even if it did hurt the pockets of Western motorists and Third World governments. As the human population continues to grow upwards of 6 billion plus beyond the use of resources and resulting pollution will grow (Nicholson, 1998, p.157). Environmental and ecological movements started to make headway in Western Europe and North America with concerns about acid rain, the emission of CFC's reducing the ozone layer and most significantly global warming (Brown, 2001, p.252). Global warming is now a concern of most governments although they do not have an equal say as to the policies that should be pursued to stop or reverse the process. Rising sea levels are more of a threat to the Netherlands, parts of Britain or Bangladesh than they are to the United States, Russia and China. The relative wealth of the Netherlands and Britain make their co-operation with the Kyoto Protocol than that of Bangladesh. The exclusion of the United States, Russia and China plus India would seriously damage the co-operation needed to make the Kyoto Protocol near being effective (Nicholson, 1998, p.165). It has been encouraging that has been co-operation between governments over the environment. However, that co-operation has to be bought about by a process of negotiations and compromises with little to force countries, especially more powerful ones such as the United States, Russia and China into agreeing to effective measures to protect the environment. Aside from appealing to sense and reason there is little way of enforcing measures agreed at the Kyoto Protocol or any other environmental summit. The Kyoto Protocol, like its predecessor the Rio Earth summit, was the result of long drawn out talks similar in complexity to the GATT rounds or EU treaties or summits. Co-operation over the environment is often to the minimum restrictions and measures that can be agreed rather than the maximum. The agreements over reducing CFC (chloroflurocarbons) emissions can be regarded as starting the process on international co-operation to slow down environmental damage although it amply demonstrated that politicians are only willing to take action once there is enough scientific of environmental damage. By that time much damage has already been done (Brown, 2002, p. 240). The Rio Earth Summit was intended to introduce measures and co-operation to tackle global warming on a greater scale. To a certain extent it succeeded in producing co-operation even if it was hampered by the unwillingness of the Bush senior administration to agree to the most stringent measures that could have been agreed. The United States remains the world's largest individual polluting country yet its governments are generally unwilling to jeopardise American living standards to save the planet. The Bush senior administration did not however block the agreement at R as it could have done. The United States government came under pressure from other governments to take greater action yet did yield to it (Brown, 2002, p. 243). Third World and developing countries were not happy and remain unhappy that the United States does not do more to protect the environment as it gained most from the way that the global environment operates (Nicholson, 1998, p.173). Other countries mainly in the EU and Scandinavia have been more active in seeing the environment as being of vital importance and wished to go further that the agreements reached at Rio. The EU can play its part in protecting the environment as it can pass legislation and regulations that its member states have to conform to (McCormick, 2002, p.128). EU states plus Australia and New Zealand played their part in the Kyoto Protocol. Once again the United States proved reluctant to adopt tough measures. That reluctance was despite President Bill Clinton being keen on environmental issues. He was unwilling to cut American living standards and also realised that tough restriction were unlikely to get through a Republican controlled Congress (Crystal, 2003, p.513). European countries such as Britain, France and Germany were unhappy about the lack of United States support for the Kyoto Protocol. Tony Blair was especially disappointed as he expected Bill Clinton to have been more supportive of the Kyoto Protocol and protecting the environment (Young, 2003, p.150). George W Bush was even less willing for the United States to be constrained by any parts of the Kyoto Protocol. Indeed prior to the 9/11 attacks the bush administration seemed cool to the idea of government co-operation most issues. Since 9/11 the United States government has been more interested in pursuing the war on terrorism rather than co-operation to uphold the Kyoto Protocol or protecting the environment. The campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq have done harm to the environment. The soaring oil prices seen after the invasion of Iraq may however boost the moves towards finding alternative fuels as much as any of the target son reducing emissions agreed within the Kyoto Protocol would have done on their own. OPEC countries seem far happier to cut oil production to maintain high prices, as it is not in their economic interests to co-operate with other countries to reduce oil production. Such is the demand for oil that the consumption does not decline even when prices are at record levels. Western governments when talking with OPEC countries would rather get the oil production quotas raised than discuss co-operation towards reduced consumption (Evans and Newnham, 1998, p. 397). The need for global co-operation to achieve the 5 per cent emission targets set out with the Kyoto Protocol would seem to gathering with global warming seeming to contribute to climate changes that are increasingly costly and dangerous(Crystal, 2003, p. 513). Climate changes have and will make floods and droughts more common whilst lack of adequate food and water supplies will contribute to greater instances of famine and severe poverty. Whilst countries can take steps to avoid economic problems there is little they can do to stop a hurricane or tsunami. The costs of reducing pollution or improving irrigation and building up flood protection with no certainty that they will be successful (Eatwell and Wright, 2003, p. 251). There was large-scale international co-operation to help the Asian countries devastated by the tsunami of December 2004. Countries can only hope that such disasters are confined to unpopulated or lightly populated areas to keep death and destruction to a minimum. Aside from such hopes countries can increase their levels of co-operation by encouraging recycling, energy and water conservation schemes to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. Therefore although the Kyoto Protocol was a sign of global co-operation to start reducing pollution and trying to make the global environment safer it has had its limitations. The failure of the United States to co-operate with the process means that the world's greatest polluter is not taking active steps to help protect the environment. Perhaps that might change depending on who succeeds George W Bush to the presidency. Not every country has signed up to the Kyoto Protocol and of those that did not all have ratified it. Should the current high oil prices continue there maybe co-operation to find alternative fuels that are cheaper and possibly cause less pollution? Some countries are more committed to co-operation in order to protect the environment. The member states of the EU are formerly aiming towards sustainable development and the mission reductions agreed to as part of the Kyoto Protocols. The selfishness of the United States and other countries that fail to co-operate to reduce environmental damage will come back to haunt us all and leave a terrible legacy to our descendants to deal with its full consequences. However the Rio Earth Summit and the Kyoto Protocols have provided a framework for global co-operation that needs to be built upon. Perhaps global co-operation could be increased through the auspices of the United Nations and aided by scientific evidence of the urgent need to act now. People should also consider acting on an individual and community basis to conserve and protect the environment as best they could by recycling and conserving water and energy.Cite this page
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John Kennedy Assassination
The John F. Kennedy Assassination
On November 22, 1963 President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested for the murder. It is believed that Lee Harvey Oswald was not the only one involved with the crime. There are countless theories on how President Kennedy was murdered.
Some of the theories include the FBI, CIA, and the mob being involved. The Warren commission said that they believe that it was solely Lee Harvey Oswald who killed President Kennedy. Most of the evidence shows that Lee Harvey Oswald could not be the only one involved. John F. Kennedy was the fourth United States President to be assassinated. Even today, there remains tremendous debate on who was responsible for the murder of Kennedy. The assassination of President Kennedy has started many different conspiracy theories about who was involved with the murder. President Kennedy wanted to travel to Dallas, Texas to help strengthen his vote for the upcoming election and also to gain more Democratic Party members.
Before Kennedy went on the trip there was some concern about a sniper being on top of a building. President Kennedy also made comments before he was killed about his safety in a convertible car.
The car President Kennedy was driving in was a 1963 Lincoln Continental open top limo. Sergeant Davis of the Dallas police department was the one who made sure the city was secure whenever any President or foreign leader came to Dallas. The secret service agent who was responsible for the planning of the Kennedy motorcade was Winston Lawson. Lawson told Sergeant Davis not to allow any police officers to follow the president’s car. It was standard procedure for the police to secure the perimeter when any president came to Dallas. Jessy Curry who was the chief of police said that if the cops were allowed to secure the area, then the murder could have been stopped.
The cops who would normally secure the area have submachine guns and rifles.(Harrison Edward Livinstone, “High Treason 2 – The Great Cover-Up:The Assassination of John F. Kennedy” (1992) Hardback) The original plan was to go from the Love Field Airport to downtown Dallas and Dealey Plaza. Kennedy was supposed to give a speech at the Dallas Trade Mart. Kennedy’s car did not have a bullet proof top, because they did not have anything invented at the time. At 12:30 President Kennedy’s limo went towards the Texas School book depository. Then the car turned right in front of the building and was only 65 feet away. The car was going 13 miles per hour and then slowed down to 9 miles per hour. Once the car passed the building the shots rang out. A man named Abraham Zapruder was right in front of the limo when it was being shot at. Zapruder was filming as the shooting took place.
Kennedy and Texas Governor John Connally were both shot. John Connally was riding in the same car as Kennedy and was sitting in the passenger seat in front of the president. Governor John Connally was in critical condition but he survived. There was also another person that was just watching the motorcade that was injured from debris when the bullet hit a curb. (David S. Lifton, “Best Evidence:Disguise and Deception in the Assassination of John F. Kennedy”) Lee Harvey Oswald had been arrested for the killing a Dallas police officer J.D. Tippit. Lee Harvey Oswald was charged for killing President Kennedy and officer J.D. Tippit.
Whenever Oswald was questioned about the shooting of President Kennedy he denied everything. There was a twelve hour interrogation of Lee Harvey Oswald and no recordings or notes were taken. Oswald said that he wasn’t involved and that he was just a patsy. Two days after the assassination, Lee Harvey Oswald was shot by Jack Ruby. Oswald was in police custody at the time of the shooting.
Jack Ruby posed as a reporter who was trying to ask Oswald a question.(The Assassination of JFK 19 June 2005 <www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/JFKindex.htm>) The gun that was used was an Italian Manlicher-Carcano rifle. The rifle was found at the Texas School Book Depository on the sixth floor.
When the police officers found the gun they recorded everything. The rifle is said to be the same gun that was used in the assassination. There was a bullet on the Connally’s stretcher and it was fired from the gun that the police had found. Lee Harvey Oswald purchased the gun under the fake name of Alek James Hiddell. (The Assassination of JFK 19 June 2005 <www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/JFKindex.htm>) President Kennedy was announced deceased at the emergency room.
The surgeons at the hospital said that Kennedy had absolutely no chance for survival. Dr. George Burkley came to the hospital shortly after the president was shot and looked at the head wound and said that it was the cause of death. A priest came to give President Kennedy his last rites. Lyndon B. Johnson who was the vice president was the next person to become president. Lyndon B. Johnson was riding in a car behind Kennedy. Lyndon B. Johnson went through the procedure to become president while he was on Air Force One. (The Assassination of JFK 19 June 2005 <www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/JFKindex.htm>) Once Air Force One had landed, an autopsy was performed at Bethesda Naval Hospital. The autopsy report said that Kennedy had been shot in the head and in the shoulder.
Reports of the autopsy were incorrect and did not match up. It is said that Dr. James J. Humes probably destroyed the autopsy report and notes that were taken during the autopsy. The measurements that Dr. James J. Humes took were inconsistent and not exact. The autopsy reports were not shown to the Warren Commission. The people who handled the autopsy records did not keep track of how many pictures were taken. It is also said that the pathologists were not experienced enough to handle Kennedy’s body in the first place. Kennedy’s neck was not looked at to determine how the bullet entered and exited.
After the autopsy Kennedy’s body was embalmed and was put into the white house for the public to see. The body was removed from the white house and buried in Arlington National Cemetery. (David S. Lifton, “Best Evidence:Disguise and Deception in the Assassination of John F. Kennedy”) There was also no recordings or radio coverage of the assassination. All of the news crews were waiting at the trade Mart for Kennedy and not in Dealey Plaza. There was some news crews riding with the Kennedy motorcade, but they were in the very back. The only recording of the murder was from Abraham Zapruder’s camera. Many individuals took still pictures of the shooting also.
The Zapruder film shows Kennedy’s head moving forward and then backwards. The Zapruder film was shown on television, but was edited a lot.
More recently, in 2003 ABC News drew Dealey Plaza in three dimensional computer models.(David S. Lifton, “Best Evidence:Disguise and Deception in the Assassination of John F. Kennedy”) The government is doing a good job in preventing records of the Kennedy assassination from becoming publicly available. In 1964 President Lyndon B. Johnson made the Warren Commission findings to be kept from public viewing. Johnson said that the documents cannot be seen by the public for 75 years, which would be until 2039. Covering up all of the records, leads more people to believe that there is indeed a conspiracy involved with the death of President Kennedy. Congress established the “President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992”. Congress made the act so that people could see the records earlier and they also felt that there was not a need to keep the records from public eyes. The act says that any document that has not been lost of destroyed must be given to the public by 2017. Many documents have already been opened, but the majority still remains locked away.
All of the original evidence and material cannot be released, because it was lost or destroyed. Some import pieces of evidence that were neglected are; the Governor of Texas’s suit being dry cleaned, the limo being cleaned, and Lee Harvey Oswald’s Marine service file being lost. (Josiah Thompson, “Six Seconds in Dallas” (1976 Paperback)) There was a paraffin test conducted on Lee Harvey Oswald’s right cheek and hands. The purpose of the test was to tell if Oswald had fired a weapon. The paraffin test came out positive, but the Warren commission said the data was inaccurate. The first people to conduct an investigation were the FBI. The director of the FBI said that he wanted something to convince the public that Lee Harvey Oswald was the only one involved with the assassination. The FBI report took 17 days to complete and was given to the Warren Commission.
The FBI assisted the Warren Commission. Both the FBI and the Warren Commission said that there were only three shots fired from the rifle that Lee Harvey Oswald had. The House Select Committee Investigated the FBI’s results. The committee concluded that the FBI did not investigate whether or not President Kennedy was involved in a conspiracy and also that they did not give their data to other law enforcement agencies. James Hosty was an FBI agent who name appeared in Jack Ruby’s address book.
The FBI made another copy of the address book and erased James Hosty’s name out of it and then gave it to the Warren Commission. Before the assassination took place, Lee Harvey Oswald went to the FBI office so that he could meet with James Hosty. Hosty was not in his office when Oswald had arrived, so Oswald left a note for him. When Oswald was murdered by Ruby, James Hosty destroyed the note by tearing it up and flushing it down the toilet. (Josiah Thompson, “Six Seconds in Dallas” (1976 Paperback)) When the Warren Commission completed their report many people questioned it and did not believe its findings. Many people have written books and articles disproving what the Warren Commission had said. In 2003 ABC News did a poll to see what the public thought about the John F. Kennedy assassination.
The poll said that seventy percent of the people think that there is a plot involved with the murder of Kennedy. Around seventy to ninety percent of the American people did not believe the Warren Commission’s findings. Even government officials that worked for the Warren Commission said that they did not completely believe the commission’s results themselves.
The House Select Committee on Assassinations said that the Warren Commission and the FBI failed to investigate who else could have been with the murder. The committee also said that the main reason for the lack of information and results were due to the Warren Commission not communicating with the CIA. (Gerald Posner, “Case Closed” (1993 Hardcover, 1st Edition)) The House Select Committee determined that President Kennedy was killed because of a conspiracy. Their results went directly against the Warren Commissions and were the complete opposite. The HSCA said that four shots were fired and Lee Harvey Oswald was not the only one who did the shooting.
Lee Harvey Oswald has shot 3 shots and another gunman had fired the other shot from behind the fence on the grassy knoll. The grassy knoll theory has came from acoustic evidence and many different witnesses. In 2001, an article by D.B. Thomas stated that the HSCA’s second gunman theory was right. The Assassination Record Review Board said that the autopsy of John F. Kennedy was a tragedy. (David S. Lifton, “Best Evidence:Disguise and Deception in the Assassination of John F. Kennedy”) The majority of the evidence involved with the John F. Kennedy assassination was mishandled and not dealt with the way it should have been. Since most of the evidence was lost and is locked away, its leads people to further believe in a conspiracy theory. The murder of John F. Kennedy shows that the government has not served its people in a righteous manner. They have lied, covered-up, and twisted things so much that it will never be possible to find out who was really involved with the murder. The government has violated the right of its own people. If the government took the time to correctly gather all of the evidence and look at all the aspects of the murder, than there would not be so much mystery surrounding the murder today.
The government had violated the Kennedy family’s 14th amendment. The 14th amendment and the due process of law were violated, because the Government failed to do a proper investigation of the assassination. The Kennedy family was not provided with a thorough and correct investigation of the murder. The government should have been a lot more accurate and involved with the investigations its agencies performed.
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What Factors Determins the Effectiveness of Public Health Interventions? Discuss with Reference to at Least Two Contrasting Examples.
Introduction
The health of the whole population is a very important issue. Conditions which are likely to affect the whole population or large sections of the population are considered to be public health issues and are the subject of specific healthcare promotions and interventions. These can take a range of forms; those aimed at raising awareness of symptoms or lifestyle factors that are implicated in developing a particular condition; management of health conditions to improve quality of life and/or longevity or recognition of symptoms to obtain early treatment. Public health interventions are developed to address identified public health issues (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, 2015). Once these are put in place, it is important to be able to assess the impact of the interventions and their effectiveness in respect of the present situation and also to increase the knowledge base for development of further interventions in the future (Brownson, et al., 2010). This essay will consider the ways in which the effectiveness of public health interventions can be determined.Discussion
One of the main factors that needs to be considered in public health interventions is cost-effectiveness (The King's Fund, 2014). The NHS has increasing demands on its services and so, when developing new interventions or reviewing those already in place, cost effectiveness is one of the most important issues. A further aspect of the effectiveness of public health interventions is the extent to which they have demonstrably achieved the aims set for the intervention (Scutchfield & Keck, 2003). These two areas will now be considered in greater detail. There is a finite budget available to the NHS to provide healthcare and this has to be utilised in the most efficient way. The economic constraints that have been in place for some time have created an even greater need for financial efficiency. One way that this can be achieved is through reducing the numbers of people who are suffering from conditions which are considered to be avoidable. Conditions such as diabetes and obesity for example, are considered to be largely avoidable by people changing lifestyle habits to improve their health. Thus a range of public health interventions have been directed to focus on these types of issues in order to prevent people from becoming ill as this would represent a substantial saving in costs of treatment for subsequent illnesses. It would also provide benefit to the public in that people would lead longer, healthier lives. However, preventative interventions present difficulties in measuring their effectiveness. A reduction in the numbers of people developing diabetes, for instance, may be attributable to a public health intervention or it may be the result of one or more other factors. The individuals measured may not have developed the condition anyway and so it cannot be proven that the intervention itself was solely responsible for them remaining well. As it can be difficult to accurately measure effectiveness of outcomes, the cost-effectiveness is also difficult to assess. Historically, preventative healthcare promotion has been a problematic area due to the difficulties in establishing effectiveness and this made obtaining funding for such activities particularly challenging. However, the increasing demand for services has meant that there has been a shift in perspective and a greater focus on prevention. Thus, the means of evaluating public health interventions in this area has become important. Although the financial implications cannot be the sole driver for health promotion, financial issues are of necessity a major factor as there are obligations on the NHS to produce evidence that their funding has been properly and effectively spent. The effectiveness of health promotions from the perspective of health improvement of the population should be the primary motivation of interventions rather than cost. In order to improve public health, there are a range of options for interventions. The impact of health interventions was described by Frieden, (2010) as being in the formof a five-tier pyramid with the bottom tier being the most effective as it reaches the largest sector of the population and has the greatest potential to improve the social/economic determinants of health. The higher tiers of the pyramid relate to areas where the individual is helped to make healthy choices. Topics that are within the bottom tier of the pyramid include the improvements in health brought about by changing lifestyle habits such as smoking. Wide-scale promotions and interventions have been in place for many years and this has reduced the numbers of people who already smoke together with encouraging people not to begin smoking. As a result, the risk factors of health issues such as heart conditions has been reduced. Whilst this may not completely prevent some people from developing such conditions in terms of public health, which takes the wider perspective, a higher proportion of people will be at a lower risk. Thus, the effectiveness of interventions in this case can be measured by the proportion of the population who currently smoke, who have given up smoking and who have started smoking by comparison to previous years records (Durkin, et al., 2012). The numbers of people coming forward for help through smoking cessation provisions offered by their GPs can also be measured, together with the effectiveness of the those interventions in helping people to achieve their goal to stop smoking. The longstanding interventions to reduce the numbers of people with HIV/AIDS also fell within the same category of public health interventions (as just described in respect of smoking) once it was clear that it was a potential risk to a large section of the population. In this instance, there was a large amount of public health promotional activity when the issue was first known in the 1980's but this has largely subsided currently with few if any national high profile promotions/interventions (Bertozzi, et al., 2006). However, the risk has not been eradicated and there has been an increase in older people developing the condition (AVERT, 2015). This may be due to them not considering they are at risk or they may not have been targeted by the original campaigns which had a greater focus on the homosexual communities, needle using drug addicts and sexually active, younger adults. Married couples were not then considered to be the primary target audience for such campaigns. This demonstrates that there is a need for on-going interventions, particularly in terms of public awareness, to ensure that there is a consistent and improving impact (AVERT, 2015). Unless a health risk has been eradicated, there is likely to be a need for continuing interventions to maintain public knowledge levels. The way in which HIV/AIDS and smoking are directed at the wider population are examples of Frieden's bottom sections of the pyramid. When interventions are applied in the top levels of Frieden's pyramid they address individuals more directly, rather than the whole population (2010). Thus, it could be argued that such interventions would overall, have a greater impact as any public changes need to involve each individual changing. Unless each person is reached by the intervention and perceives that it is a valuable change for them, publicly directly interventions will have reduced effectiveness. National interventions will of necessity be broadly based and they will, therefore, not reach all those people to whom it is aimed as they may feel that it does not apply to them. Thus, the use of interventions that are more specifically targeted to individuals can take into account their socio-economic status and other factors to make the interventions more easily seen to be applicable to them (Frieden, 2010 ). A different view of public health interventions considers the situation for people with terminal or long term conditions. Many of the interventions focus heavily on the medical model and do not take into account the impact on the patient or how they would prefer to be cared for. The medical view of what constitutes good health may be considered to be a more laboratory based, theoretical view that does not necessarily reflect the lived experience of individuals (Higgs, et al., 2005). Physical incapacity may not impact badly on an individual who has found ways to live a fulfilling life whilst someone who is considered fit and well may not consider that they have good quality of life (Asadi-Lari, et al., 2004). Therefore, the impact of interventions on the public also needs to be considered. A medically effective intervention may be unpleasant or difficult for the patient to endure and thus, viewed as being less effective. Furthermore, if the intervention is too unpleasant the patient may fail to comply and thus, also not obtain the level of effectiveness that the medical model would suggest it should (Asadi-Lari, et al., 2004). One area of public health that has proved to be somewhat controversial in recent years is that of immunisation. The possible links between the MMR vaccine and autism, for instance, has impacted heavily on the numbers of people having their children immunised (BMJ, 2013). Vaccination is an important branch of public health and relies upon sufficient people being immunised against diseases so that should isolated cases occur the disease will not spread. Many parents today will be unaware of the health implications of illnesses such as German measles and mumps as vaccination has made cases rare. The rarity of the cases has also led to the incorrect belief that these illnesses have been eradicated. Therefore, in this instance the effectiveness of the intervention has been varied by the influence of the media reports or adverse outcomes. The fear that was generated has been difficult to overcome and this has resulted in a loss of faith in the process. This then results in reduced effectiveness of the intervention. However, it can prove very difficult to restore public support following situation such as this that have continued for a long time. The impact can be measured in both the numbers of people coming forward to have their children immunised and in the numbers of cases of the various illnesses that occur each year. The current statistics, however, do suggest that the levels of immunisation with MMR has now been restored to an appropriate level (NHS, 2013). The provision of the 'flu vaccine is another instance where public health interventions may have varying effectiveness. The actual effectiveness of a 'good' vaccine is not considered to be 100% when the correct formula has been provided. In 2014, however, the vaccine was not for the actual strain of 'flu that occurred and so there was little protection provided (Public Health England, 2015). As a result, it is likely that there will be a downturn in the numbers of people who will come forward to receive the 'flu vaccination this year as the value may be perceived to be doubtful. This also demonstrates the need to provide the public with correct information so that they are aware of the potential effectiveness of the intervention. So in the case of 'flu, if the vaccine has a 60% chance of preventing the illness this should perhaps be specifically stated. There may be a level at which the majority of people feel that it is not worth having the vaccination. If, hypothetically, an effectiveness of less than 30% was considered by the majority of people to be so low that it was not worth having the vaccination, there could be few people immunised and a major epidemic could follow. Therefore, it is important that the information provided is correct and that the intervention itself is seen to be of sufficient value to the individual to warrant them making that choice to take advantage of what is offered (NHS, 2015).Conclusion
This essay has asserted that the effectiveness of public health interventions can be viewed from two main perspectives: the cost effectiveness of the provision and the impact on the target audience. Whilst there are considerable pressures in the NHS financially, this should not be the primary consideration in respect of public health. The aim of public health interventions is to improve the health and well-being of the population as a whole and uses a wide range of methods to achieve this. Some provisions are aimed at the whole population and others are designed for the individual or smaller target groups. For these to be effective, they need to reach the target audience and have meaning for them so that they will be encouraged to take the required action. Continuous changes in the provision may also be needed to ensure that long term issues remain in the public awareness.Bibliography
Asadi-Lari, M., Tamburini, M. & Gray, D., 2004. Patients' needs, satisfaction, and health related quality of life: Towards a comprehensive model. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes , 2(32). AVERT, 2015. HIV/AIDS Statistics 2012. [Online] Available at: https://www.avert.org/hiv-aids-uk.htm [Accessed 28 September 2015]. Bertozzi, S.; Padian, N.S.; Wegbreit, J.; DeMaria, L.M.; Feldman, B.; Gayle, H.; Gold, J.; Grant, R.; Isbell, M.T., 2006. Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. New York: World Bank. BMJ, 2013. Measles in the UK: a test of public health competency in a crisis. BMJ, 346(f2793). Brownson, R.C.; Baker, E.A.; Leet, T.L.; Gillespie, K.N.; True, W.R., 2010. Evidence-Based Public Health. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Durkin, S., Brennan, E. & Wakefield, M., 2012. Mass media campaigns to promote smoking cessation among adults: an integrative review. Tobacco Control, Volume 21, pp. 127-138. Frieden, T. R., 2010 . A Framework for Public Health Action: The Health Impact Pyramid. American Journal of Public Health, 100(4), p. 590–595. Higgs, J., Jones, M., Loftus, S. & Christensen, N., 2005. Clinical Reasoning in the Health Professions. New York: Elsevier Health Sciences. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, 2015. Methods for the development of NICE public health guidance (third edition). [Online] Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/article/pmg4/chapter/1%20introduction [Accessed 28 September 2015]. NHS, 2013. NHS Immunisation Statistics, London: NHS. NHS, 2015. Flu Plan Winter 2015/16. [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/418038/Flu_Plan_Winter_2015_to_2016.pdf [Accessed 28 September 2015]. Public Health England, 2015. Flu vaccine shows low effectiveness against the main circulating strain seen so far this season. [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/flu-vaccine-shows-low-effectiveness-against-the-main-circulating-strain-seen-so-far-this-season [Accessed 28 September 2015]. Scutchfield, F. & Keck, C., 2003. Principles of Public Health Practice. Clifton Park: Delmar Learning. The King's Fund, 2014. Making the case for public health interventions. [Online] Available at: https://www.kingsfund.org.uk/audio-video/public-health-spending-roi?gclid=CM_ExbKomcgCFcZuGwodE44Lkg [Accessed 28 September 2015].Cite this page
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Describe the Transference-countertransference Element of the Therapeutic Relationship
Describe the transference-countertransference element of the therapeutic relationship
An examination of the development of transference and counter-transference as a therapeutic tool with an exploration of the ways in which it can be defined and used in a therapeutic setting, with an overview and brief discussion of the way the concept of transference/counter-transference has been received by different schools of therapy.Introduction
This essay explores the development of transference and countertransference from their origins in Freud's work to their current uses in different psychotherapeutic schools. The Kleinian contribution is identified as a major catalyst to re-thinking countertransference as a resource rather than simply an obstacle to treatment.An unseemly event and a fortuitous discovery
In 1881, the physician Dr Josef Breuer began treating a severely disturbed young woman who became famous in the history of psychoanalysis as "Anna O". She had developed a set of distressing symptoms, including severe visual disturbances, paralysing muscular spasms, paralyses of her left forearm and hand and of her legs, as well as paralysis of her neck muscles (Breuer, 1895, in Freud and Breuer 1985/2004, p. 26). Medical science could not explain these phenomena organically, save to designate them as symptoms of what was then known as "hysteria", so Breuer took the radical step of visiting his young patient twice a day and listening carefully to her as she spoke about her troubles. He was to make a powerful discovery which deeply influenced his young assistant, Dr Sigmund Freud: whenever Anna found herself spontaneously recounting memories of traumatic events from her early history, memories she had hitherto had no simple access to through conscious introspection, her symptoms began to disappear one by one. But for the purposes of this essay, one event was to be of pivotal importance: just as Breuer was about to conclude his treatment of the young woman as a success, she declared to him that she was in love with him and was pregnant with his child. Perhaps unsurprisingly, Breuer was traumatised and withdrew from this intimate method of treatment promptly. Freud's original biographer, Ernest Jones, reports that Breuer and Freud originally described the incident as an "untoward" event (Jones, 1953, p. 250); but where Breuer admonished himself for experimenting with an unethically intimate method which may have made him seem indiscreet to the young woman, Freud studied the phenomenon with scrupulous scientific neutrality. He, too, had experienced spontaneous outbursts of apparent love from his psychotherapeutic patients, but as Jones (1953, p. 250) observes, he was certain that such declarations had little or nothing to do with any magnetic attraction on his part. The concept of transference was born: patients, Freud argued, find themselves re-experiencing intense reactions in the psychotherapeutic relationship which were in origin connected with influential others in their childhoods (such as parents or siblings). Without being aware of doing so, patients tended to transfer their earlier relationship issues onto the person of the therapist. As Spillius, Milton, Couve and Steiner (2011) argue, at the time of the Studies in Hysteria, Freud tended to regard manifestations of transference as a predominantly positive force: the patient's mistaken affections could be harnessed in the service of a productive alliance between therapist and client to explore and analyse symptoms. But by 1905, his thinking about transference began to undergo a profound change. Already aware that patients could direct unjustifiably hostile feelings toward the analyst as well as affectionate ones, his work with the adolescent "Dora" shook him deeply when she abruptly terminated her analysis in a surprisingly unkind and perfunctory manner (Freud, 1905/2006). He had already worked out that both the positive and negative manifestations of transference functioned as forms of resistance to the often unpleasant business of understanding one's own part in the events of the past (it is, for example, a good deal easier to lay the blame for one's present-day failings on "bad" or unsupportive figures from the past or on their selected stand-ins in the present than it is to acknowledge that one rejected or failed to make full use of one's opportunities). But he began to realise that Dora had actively repeated a pattern of relationship-behaviour with him that had actually arisen from her unacknowledged hostility toward her father, as well as to a young man she had felt attracted to, because both had failed to show her the affection and consideration she believed herself entitled to. She took her revenge out on Freud – and she was not alone in actively re-enacting critical relationship scenarios inside the therapeutic relationship; other patients, he began to see, also frequently actively relived relational patterns in this way while totally unaware that they were repeating such established patterns. By 1915, transference was no longer a resistance to recovering hazy and unpleasant memories for Freud; instead, it was an active, lived repetition of earlier relationships based on mistakenly perceived similarities between here-and-now characteristics of the analyst and there-and-then characteristics of previously loved or hated figures (Freud, 1915/2002)The interplay between psychical reality and social reality
Melanie Klein, a pioneer of child psychoanalysis, accepted Freud's view of transference as a form of re-enactment, but using her meticulous observations of the free play of very young (and very disturbed) child patients, she began to develop the view that it was not the dim-and-distant past that was re-enacted but, on the contrary, the present. Psychical reality and social reality were not coterminous or even continuous; they were involved instead in a ceaseless dialectical interplay (Likierman, 2001, esp. pp. 136 – 144). Real people may constitute the child's external world, but for Klein, the only way to make sense of the often violent and disturbing content of the children's play she observed was to posit the existence of a psychical reality dominated by powerful unconscious phantasies involving frighteningly destructive and magically benevolent inner figures or "objects" (Klein, 1952/1985). Children didn't simply re-enact actual, interpersonal relationships, they re-enacted relationships between themselves and their unique unconscious phantasy objects. In spontaneous play, children were dramatising and seeking to master or domesticate their own worst fears and anxieties, she believed. Klein's thought has changed the way transference is viewed in adult psychotherapy, too. If transference involves not simply the temporal transfer of unremembered historical beliefs into the present but the immediate transfer of phantasies, in the here-and-now, which are active in the patient's mind, handling transference becomes a matter of immediate therapeutic concern: one does not have to wait until a contingency in the present evokes an event from the past, nor for the patient to make direct references to the therapist in her associations, because a dynamic and constantly shifting past is part of the present from the first moments of therapy in Kleinian thought. For example, Segal (1986, pp.8 – 10) describes a patient opening her first therapy session by talking about the weather – it's cold and raining outside. Of all the issues a patient could choose to open a session – the latest political headlines, a currently active family drama, a dream, a quarrel with a work colleague, and so on – it is always significant when a patient "happens" to select a particular theme; for Segal, following Klein, this selection indicates the activity of unconscious phantasy objects. Transference is immediate: Segal asks whether the patient is actually exploring, via displacement onto the weather, her transferential fear that the analyst may be an unfriendly, cold, and joy-dampening figure.Countertransference, its development and its use by different schools of therapy
The foregoing has focussed on transference but implicit throughout has been the complementary phenomenon of countertransference, from Breuer's shocked withdrawal from Dora's transferential love to Freud's distress at being abruptly abandoned by Dora who, he later realised, was re-enacting a revenge scenario. Intensely aware that emotions could be roused all too easily in the analyst during a psychoanalytic treatment, Freud was exceptionally circumspect about any form of expression of these feelings to the patient. In his advice to practitioners, he suggested that the optimal emotional stance for the therapist was one of "impartially suspended attention" (Freud, 1912b/2002, p. 33). He did not, however, intend this to be a stable, unfluctuating position of constantly benevolent interest; he urged therapists to be as free of presuppositions and as open-minded as possible to their patients' spoken material, to be willing to be surprised at any moment, and to allow themselves the freedom to shift from one frame of mind to another. But he was unambiguous in his advice about how the therapist should comport him- or herself during analysis: "For the patient, the doctor should remain opaque, and, like a mirror surface, should show nothing but what is shown to him." (Freud, 1912b, p. 29) As his paper on technique makes clear, Freud considered the stirring up of intense emotions on the part of the therapist as inevitable during analytic work; but he also considered these responses to the patient an obstacle to analytic work, the stirring up of the therapist's own psychopathology which required analysis rather than in-session expression. The analyst had an obligation to remove his own blind-spots so as to attend to the patient's associations as fully and prejudicially as possible. By the 1950s, psychoanalysts were beginning to explore countertransference as a potential source of insight into the patient's mind. As Ogden (1992) draws out in his exploration of the development of Melanie Klein's notion of projective identification, Kleinian analysts such as Wilfred Bion, Roger Money-Kyrle, Paula Heimann and Heinrich Racker began arguing that it was an interpersonal mechanism rather than an intrapsychic one (as Klein had intended). Patients, they believed, could evoke aspects of their own psychic reality, especially those aspects they that they found difficult to bear, inside the mind of the analyst by exerting subtle verbal and behavioural pressures on the therapist. Therapists should not, therefore, dismiss such evoked emotions as purely arising from their own psychopathology, but as a form of primitive, para- or pre-verbal communication from the patient. As Ogden (a non-Kleinian) puts it: "Projective identification is that aspect of transference that involves the therapist being enlisted in an interpersonal actualization of (an actual enactment between patient and therapist) of a segment of the patient's internal object world." (Ogden, 1992, p. 69) Countertransference, in other words, when handled carefully and truthfully by the therapist, can be a resource rather than an obstacle, and as such it has spread well beyond the Kleinian School. For example, while advocating caution in verbalising countertransference effects in therapy, the Independent psychoanalyst Christopher Bollas (1987) suggests that the analyst's mind can be used by patients as a potential space, a concept originally developed by Winnicott (1974) to designate a safe, delimited zone free of judgement, advice and emotional interference from others, within which people can creatively express hitherto unexplored aspects of infantile experience. Bollas cites the example of a patient who recurrently broke off in mid-sentence just as she was starting to follow a line of associations, remaining silent for extended periods. Initially baffled and then slightly irritated, Bollas worked on exploring his countertransference response carefully over several months of analytic work. He eventually shared a provisional understanding with her that came from his own experience of feeling, paradoxically, in the company of someone who was absent, who was physically present but not emotionally attentive or available. He told her that he had noticed that her prolonged silences left him in a curious state, which he wondered was her attempt to create a kind of absence he was meant to experience. The intervention immediately brought visible relief to the patient, who was eventually able to connect with previously repressed experiences of living her childhood with an emotionally absent mother (Bollas, 1987, pp. 211 – 214). Other schools of psychoanalytic therapy such as the Lacanians remain much more aligned with Freud's original caution, believing that useful though countertransference may be, it should never be articulated in therapy but taken to supervision or analysis for deeper understanding (Fink, 2007).References
- Bollas, C. (1987). Expressive uses of the countertransfeence:notes to the patient from oneself. In C. Bollas, The Shadow of the Object: Psychoanlsyis of the Unthought Known (pp. 200 - 235). London: Free Associations Books.
- Breuer, J. (1883-5/2004). Fraulein Anna O. In S. Freud, & J. Breuer, Studies in Hysteria (pp. 25 - 50). London and New York: Penguin (Modern Classics Series).
- Fink, B. (2007). Handling Transference and Countertransference. In B. Fink, Fundamentals of Psychoanalytic Technique: A Lacanian Approach for Practitioners (pp. 126 - 188). New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company.
- Freud, S. (1905/2006). Fragment of an Analysis of Hysteria (Dora). In S. Freud, The Psychology of Love (pp. 3 - 109). London and New York: Penguin (Modern Classics Series).
- Freud, S. (1912/2002). Advice to Doctors on Psychoanaytic Treatment. In S. Freud, Wild Analysis (pp. 33 - 41). London and New York : Penguin (Modern Classics Series).
- Freud, S. (1912/2002). On The Dymanics of Transference. In S. Freud, Wild Analysis (pp. 19 - 30). Londona nd New York: Penguin (Modern Classics Series).Freud, S. (1915/2003). Remenbering, Repeating and Working Through. In S. Freud, Beyond the Pleasure Priciple and Other Writings (pp. 31 - 42). London and New York: Penguin (Modern Classics Series).
- Jones, E. (1953). The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud: The Formative Years and the Great Discoveries, 1856-1900 - Vol. 1. New York: Basic Books.Klein, M. (1952/1985). The Origins of Transference. In M. Klein, Envy and Gratitude and Other Works (pp. 48 - 60). London: The Hogarth Press & The Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
- Likierman, M. (2001). Melanie Klein: Her Work in Context. London and New York: Continuum.
- Ogden, T. (1992). Projective Identification and Psychotherapeutic Technique. London: Maresfield Library.
- Segal, H. (1986). Melanie Klein's Technique. In H. Segal, The Work of Hanna Segal: Delusion and Artistic Creativity & Other Psycho-analytic Essays (pp. 3 - 34). London: Free Associations Books/Maresfield Library.
- Spillius, E., Milton, J., P., G., Couve, C., & Steiner, D. (2011). The New Dictionary of Kleinian Thought. East Sussex and New York: Routledge.Winnicott, D. W. (1974). Playing and Reality. London: Pelican.
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Natural Sustainability Housing
Problem Specification
If everyone on the planet were to consume natural resources and generate carbon dioxide at the rate we do in the UK, we would need three planets to support us. Sustainability is becoming a central concern for all of us. It is a concern that has grown out of wider recognition that rising populations and economic development are threatening a progressive degradation of the earth's resources. The construction, maintenance and use of housing impacts substantially on our environment and is currently contributing significantly to irreversible changes in the world's climate, atmosphere and ecosystem. Housing is by far the greatest producers of harmful gases such as CO2 and this eco-footprint can only increase with the large population growth predicted to occur by 2050. What sustainability means is adapting the ways we all live and work towards meeting needs, while minimising the impacts of consumption, providing for people of today and not endangering the generations of tomorrow. A Government report on the economic impact of climate change has criticized the training and organisation of the construction industry. The Stern Report, by Sir Nichols Stern, the World Bank's former chief economist, says the lack of co-ordination between elements of the industry creates poor quality, energy-inefficient housing. It says architects and other consultants require more training on the principles of sustainable design and efficient technologies, and that policies need to be put in place to inform decisions made at the design stage of a building. As a result of the report, the government has set legally binding targets of a 26 – 32 per cent reduction in CO2 emissions by the year 2020 and an independent body will be introduced to advise on and monitor the Government's policies on the subject. The drive for more sustainable development is one of the defining issues of the early 21st Century. It is often said that the costs of today's lifestyles are such that future generations will pay a high price through reduced environmental quality and living standards. However, it is also perceived that the short term costs of more sustainable practices are too high to justify their application in a competitive property market. Government plans for sustainable housing applies to both new builds and existing dwellings. The construction industry as a whole is responsible for finding new materials and building methods, and the Government is tasked with educating the general public on the sustainable features they can add to their homes to ensure sustainability. Despite substantial advances in best practice, there is a lag in the application of more sustainable solutions that improve building performance beyond that required by Building Regulations. There are many reasons for this, not least a lack of client/customer demand; however, one of the most cited is that more sustainable alternatives are prohibitively expensive. Typically, cost consultants can add a significant margin of as much as 10% to capital costs to allow for more sustainable solutions. (Cyril Sweett) Often the most powerful and direct driver for addressing sustainability is that the client, funder or planning authority has made it a key project requirement. In order to meet this requirement, everyone involved in a construction project must re-think their operations in areas such as energy, materials, waste and pollution. For the purposes of this essay, choosing, using, re-using and recycling materials during design, manufacture, construction and maintenance to reduce resource requirements and essentially lower the costs of a project. The design of a sustainable home and the materials used during construction are key factors in reducing CO2 emissions from transport and operational energy, reducing mains water consumption, reducing the impact of materials used, reducing pollutants harmful to the atmosphere and improving the indoor environment. It is claimed all of these can be done with an increase in capital costs of just 3% (John Shore). The aim of the essay, therefore, is to examine the need for sustainable construction and to identify the real costs of sustainable solutions and thereby tackling a key barrier to the industry in advancing the sustainability agenda.Literature review
There are many articles, journals and reports that look into sustainable housing in the UK, many of which begin by explaining the extent of the problems global warming will bring and how the construction industry has contributed to this. It has been well documented in the national news on a regular basis. The Climate Change Bill, which was included in the 2006 Queens speech was the beginning to the Government acting upon the information they were being given which indicated a strong need for change sooner than later. This led to reports including 'Low Cost Homes: economical eco-options on the rise' (Hall 2007) and articles such as 'Green construction costs dramatically lower than believed' (World Business Council for Sustainable Development 2007). This article was produced on the back of findings from a survey conducted by the WBCSD that green construction costs were being overestimated by 300%. Respondents to a 1400 person estimated the additional cost of building green at 17% above conventional construction; more than triple the true cost difference of about 5 %. At the same time, survey respondents put greenhouse gas emissions by building at 19% of world total, while the actual number of 40% is double this. As a reaction to the article on the report on the Euractiv website, the RICS has emphasized its 'Green Value' study, which shows that while there are signs of an increasing market value of green housing, industry stakeholders still seem to be failing to get the message across that the main beneficiaries are the housing occupants. Hall's report identified the issue of the Government insisting that all new homes in Britain must be carbon-neutral by 2016, putting pressure on developers to come up with good design that doesn't cost the earth – financially or environmentally. Hall went on to say, at the moment, going green costs money and most private sector developers are reluctant to see beyond their profits. But eco-friendly innovation is coming from elsewhere – namely social housing. Costing Green: A Comprehensive Database (Matthiessen & Morris) used extensive data on building costs to compare the cost of green housing with housing comparable programs, which do not have sustainable goals. The report concluded that many projects achieve sustainable design within their initial budget, or with very small supplemental funding, which suggests that home owners are finding ways to incorporate project goals and values, regardless of budget, by making choices. The Stern Report, published by Sir Nicholas Stern Head of head of the Government economic service and advisor to the Government on the economics of climate change and development is a report that suggests that global warming could shrink the global economy by 20%. The review coincides with the release of new data by the United Nations showing an upward trend in emission of greenhouse gases – a development for which Sir Nicholas said that rich countries must shoulder most of the responsibility. The study is the first major contribution to the global warming debate by an economist, rather than an environmental scientist. Prime Minister Gordon Brown, who commissioned the report, has also recruited former US Vice-President Al Gore as an environment advisor. However, the report has sparked furious debate among economists. An example of why the report has sparked such debates is; if the economy grows at current levels, the cost of mitigation will be less than Stern estimates – therefore we would be paying more to act now. It is said that we could save money by addressing the issues as and when they erupt. By forecasting how global warming is to affect the environment, Stern has set himself up for criticism such as this from the many people who fail to share his views and concerns. Gathering relevant information on the true costs of sustainable housing is not a problem with so many government and independent studies/articles/journals being produced. This data can be compared against the price of housing without the sustainable goals which are found in construction pricing books such as Spons Architect and Builders Price Book (Davis Langdon). In comparing the prices the essay will either prove are falsify the hypothesis: sustainable construction can be attained with very little additional costs to that of construction without sustainable characteristics. For the purpose of this hypothesis, 'very little additional costs' is defined as ranging from 0% - 10% additional costs.Methodology
Chapter 2 of this essay will be a review of the literature on sustainable construction in regards to the principles of sustainable construction, sustainable construction policies and practices in the UK and the economic benefits of sustainable construction. The results of this research show that the business benefits have been made and can be illustrated by many pioneer projects in the UK. However, the misperception of higher capital cost and the lack of awareness of market value are still significant barriers to the implement and demand for sustainable construction. It is critical, therefore, to establish the economic performance of sustainable construction in order to motivate stakeholders to consider methods of sustainable construction. This subject has been the attention of mass media in recent years meaning that existing literature such as numerous Government and independent reports as well as the Climate change Bill introduced to help prevent the situation we find ourselves in environmentally from becoming worse, will be excellent sources of information to explain thoroughly why there is a need for change and what sustainable construction entails from a economic perspective. Chapter 3 will be researching the various sustainable construction materials and methods that are available to the industry. Each one of these will be looked at in detail to explain how they work, what exactly is involved with them and how they are deemed sustainable. Although they are still not widely used, there are plenty of companies offering sustainable building materials and construction services. A lot of these companies are available through online websites promoting sustainable construction and offering their services. These companies will be good ways of gathering the information needed in order to give a comprehensive review of the sustainable materials and methods that are available. Using the information gathered in chapter 3, this essay will then be finding out the costs incurred when using these sustainable construction materials and building methods and comparing them against the non-eco-friendly methods that most contractors currently choose to incorporate. This information will make up chapter 4 and will ultimately go on to either verify or falsify the hypothesis: 'sustainable construction can be attained with very little additional costs to that of construction without sustainable characteristics.' This structure has been carefully chosen to gain as much relevant information as possible and comparing two methods of construction against one another. In chapter 2, a review of existing literature will be used. Reasons for this are that the subject of sustainable construction and its financial factors have already been investigated and numerous authors have wrote their findings and ideas on the subject. These findings will be reviewed in order to pull out the relevant parts for this essay. Chapter 3 will consist of an in depth look into the types of sustainable materials and building methods that are available to the construction industry. This will take the form of a mix between a review of existing literature and a survey of the service provider's views, feelings and attitudes towards sustainability. Chapter 4 will be a comparative analysis of sustainable building and material costs and the costs of materials and building methods without sustainable characteristics. The information found in chapter 3 will be the argument for sustainability. The argument for construction without sustainable characteristics will come from pricing books used throughout the industry. Once both sides' costs have been discovered, they will be weighed up against each other which will verify or falsify the hypothesis. If sustainable construction can be provided with an extra cost of 5% or less, then the hypothesis will be verified.Introduction of Sustainable Construction
In 1987, the Brundtland Report, also known as Our Common Future, alerted the world to the urgency of making progress toward economic development that could be sustained without depleting natural resources or harming the environment. It was headed by the Norwegian Prime Minister at the time, Gro Harlem Brundtland. The report was primarily concerned with securing a global equity, redistributing resources towards poorer nations whilst encouraging their economic growth. The report also suggested that equity, growth and environmental maintenance are simultaneously possible and that each country is capable of achieving its full economic potential whilst at the same time enhancing its resource base. The report also recognised that achieving this equity and sustainable growth would require technological and social change. The report went on to highlight three primary areas where sustainable development should come from, these were, protection of the environment, economic growth and social equity. It is imperative that our environment is protected and our resource base enhanced, by gradually making the necessary changes in which we develop technologies and put them to use. Developing nations must be allowed to meet their basic needs of employment, food, energy, water and sanitation. If this is to be done in a sustainable manner, then there is a definite need for a sustainable level of population. Economic growth should be revived and developing nations should be allowed a growth of equal quality to the developing nations. The Brundtland Report has often been subject to criticism, on the grounds that many of its forecasts have not come true. However, such criticisms are perhaps missing the significance of the report and the fact that despite inaccuracies in forecasting, the Brundtland Report's premise of the need for global environmental action has not been invalidated. Back in 1994, the first sustainable construction conference was held in Tampa, USA. This conference is seen as the starting point for the whole eco-friendly building to become a global issue. The UK construction industry has so far used sustainable construction as a way to respond to the criticism that fell upon the industry, as it were seen to be one of the main contributors to greenhouse gases. There are numerous examples of housing in the UK that have been constructed with sustainable characteristics to help provide a healthier way of living for the occupier and constructing for the developer. However, these examples tend to be bespoke designs for clients who choose themselves to build and live in a sustainable home. The idea of sustainable developments is still yet to catch on in the UK. Perceived higher risks and extra costs are the main factors in this lack of incorporation into the industry. It is becoming clear that the whole concept of sustainable construction is going to face some barriers in regards to economic justification. Incurring higher risks and costs is not the only issue. The market value of sustainable construction is also not being considered by clients and developers. Zhou and Lowe (2003) said: The current economic measuring too (life cycle costing), is very effective at illustrating the long term value of sustainable construction, but at the same time is limited when showing the initial cost reduction. If those involved in the UK construction industry continue to be encouraged by short term financial gain as opposed to the consequences of their actions in the long run then the future does not look too bright for the sustainable construction idea. Hydes and Creech (2000) said, "Sustainability is a holistic concept that holds economic social and environmental factors in balance, moreover it is a complex concept, which is hard to define in simple terms." This statement recognises that clients and developers should not only take their financial rewards into consideration, but also they should consider the consequences the environment and our society is reportedly beginning to see. Pearce et al (1989) concluded that: "There have been over 200 different definitions of sustainability, making it extremely difficult to determine practical ways to support sustainability." This statement could also outline the problem that the industry has still not come to an agreement on the actual definition of sustainability, therefore, making its inception into recognised practice unlikely, as people simply don't know or don't want to know what their role could be in reducing the problems of global warming. In July 2005, the then Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown announced that he had asked Sir Nicholas Stern to lead a major review of the economics of climate change, to understand more comprehensively the nature of the economic challenges and how they can be met, in the UK and globally. The main conclusion from the report were that 1% of global gross domestic product per annum was required to be invested in order to avoid the worst effects of climate change, and that failure to do so could risk global GDP being up to 20% lower than it otherwise might be. Stern's report suggested that climate change threatens to be the greatest and widest ranging market failure ever seen, and it provided prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions. Stern stated, Our actions over the coming few decades could create risks of major disruption to economic and social activity, later in this century and in the next, on a scale similar to those associated with the great wars and the economic depression of the first half of the 20th century. It was the findings in this report that prompted the UK Government to introduce the Climate Change Bill. It was introduced to: Combat climate change by setting annual targets for the reduction of carbon dioxide emission until 2050; to place duties on the Prime Minister regarding the reporting on and achievement of those targets; to specify procedures to be followed if the targets are not met; to specify certain functions of and provide certain powers to Members of Parliament with regard to ensuring carbon dioxide emission are reduced; to set sectoral reduction targets and targets for energy efficiency, the generation of energy from renewable sources, combined heat and power and micro-generation; and for connected purposes. This Bill was outlined in the Queens speech, and would also see the setting up of a 'Carbon Committee' to ensure the targets are met. Announcing the Government's planned legislation for the forthcoming parliamentary session, the Queen told MPs and peers: "My Government will publish a Bill on climate change as part of its policy to protect the environment, consistent with the need to secure long term energy supplies". The construction industry uses vast quantities of natural resources such as energy, water, materials and land, and produces large amounts of waste in the region of 70 million tonnes per annum to landfill. The Brundtland definition of sustainable development; "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" informs us that this cannot continue. There is a big difference between the environment impacts of a poorly performing building compared to what is achievable using current practice. If we are to deliver the legally binding targets set by the Government we must ensure that today's housing meet best practice (BREEAM). BREEAM is the world's longest standing and most widely used environment assessment method for housing. It sets the standard for best practice in sustainable development and demonstrates a level of achievement. It has become the vocabulary used to describe a building's environmental performance. The BRE Sustainable community's team is involved with aiding local authorities, land owners and developers to identify the relevant sustainable development opportunities available to help deliver sustainable communities. They work with them to provide assessment framework to guide the sustainable developments, and to allow developers to demonstrate the sustainability features of their proposals to the local planning authority. The benefits are said to be enormous, and cost effective. Developers can assess the sustainability of proposed designs iteratively, and understand its strengths and weaknesses. Expensive reworking is avoided by considering issues in the right stage of the design issues. The value in this approach for developers and land owners is that sustainability credentials are presented to both the local planning authority, and importantly to potential purchasers. Our homes account to some 27% of the UK's CO2 emissions and for this reason, in order to meet its targets for cutting carbon emissions by some 60% by 2050, the Government has announced that, as part of the new Home Information Pack which all homes sold after June 1st 2007 must make available, every home should have an energy rating. The so called Energy Performance Certificate will give home buyers A to G ratings for their home's energy efficiency and carbon emissions. They will tell them current and average costs for heating, hot water and lighting in the home. This helps the Government meet the EU target for all homes having energy ratings by 2009. Changes to a currently constructed dwelling or additional features on a new build are always going to give an immediate impression of 'extra costs.' And getting people to dig a little bit deeper into their pockets is always going to be a difficult task whatever the reason being, and the fact that the public are generally over pricing the cost of these new construction methods and features, increases the difficulty the Government have of achieving their targets. This chapter has looked into how and why sustainability has become such a big issue in recent years. The Brundtland report which is said to have started it all off was published over 20 years ago, outlined the potential problems that have begun to arise. And although a lot of what was said in the report did not happen, it can't be said that the potential environmental problems it predicted have not materialised. Chapter 3 will now go on to look at the sustainable construction methods and materials that are available to be implemented into the industries everyday life.Sustainable Construction Materials and Methods
There is an urgent need to address the great challenges of our times: climate change, resource depletion, pollution, and peak oil. These issues are all accelerating rapidly, and all have strong links with the UK construction industry (SustainableBuild). There is a growing consensus from scientists and the oil industry that we are going to reach peak oil within the next twenty years, and that we might have reached this point already. Global demand is soaring, whilst global production is declining, and oil is set to become increasingly expensive and scarce. The building industry is hugely dependent on cheap oil, from the manufacture and transportation of its materials, to the machinery and tools used in demolition and construction. In the UK, it uses vast quantities of fossil fuels, accounting for over half of total carbon emissions that lead to climate change. The built environment is also responsible for significant amounts of air, soil and water pollution, and millions of tonnes of landfill waste. This is a situation that clearly needs to change (SustainableBuild). Sustainable construction is not only a wise choice for our future; it is also a necessary choice. The construction industry must adopt eco-friendly practices and materials that reduce its impacts, before we reach a point of irreversible damage to our life supporting systems. The UK Government is beginning to recognise this urgency, and is committed to integrating green specifications into building regulations and codes, but the process of developing policy is slow. The industry needs to take its own initiative and find alternative ways to build, using green, renewable energy resources, and adopt non-polluting practices and materials that reduce, recycle and reuse, before it is too late (SustainableBuild). In the previous chapter, this essay examined current literature on sustainable construction in terms of the principles of sustainable construction, sustainable construction policies and practices in the UK and the economic benefits of sustainable construction. In this chapter it will now investigate the various sustainable construction materials and methods available to the industry ranging from very large complex items to small simple items. These are:- Biomass roofing
- Solar Water and Electric
- Wind power
- Cob building
- Insulation materials
- Non-toxic paints
- Heat pump
- Green roofs
- Reclaimed materials
- Lime
- Using locally sourced materials
Biomass roofing
The use of plant materials to build the roof on a building is known as biomass roofing. Vegetation that was found locally and in abundance has been used to build roofs all over world for many years. This cultural and environmental diversity has led to a range of roofing materials and styles, from simple and short lived to the more durable and complex. Although hundreds of different plants have been used to roof houses, these can be classified into two main types: thatch and wood tiles. Thatch is one of the oldest forms of roofing, dating back thousands of years. It is found in almost every country, from savannah grasses in Africa to coconut palm fronds in the Caribbean to banana leaves in the Amazon. It was the predominant roofing material in Britain up until the 19th Century and thatched cottages remain a hallmark of the English Countryside. All sorts of plants have been used for thatching in Britain: oats, reeds, broom, heather, bracken and various grasses. But today only three main thatching materials are used: water reed, wheat reed and long straw. Water Reed is the most popular thatching material. Both water reed and wheat reed (actually a straw but cut with a binder and combed to give the appearance of reed) give a compact and even texture when applied to a roof. This is in contrast with long straw (wheat straw that has been threshed so that the ears and butts are mixed up together), which gives a shaggy, rounded appearance. The lifespan of thatch is around 30 to 50 years, although this varies widely depending on the skill of the thatcher, the pitch of the roof, the local climate conditions and the quality of the materials. The technique for thatching is basically the same for all materials. First the thatch is fastened together in bundles about 25 inches in diameter. Each bundle is then laid down with the butt end facing outwards, secured together to the roof beams, and pegged in place with wooden rods. Successive layers are added on top of each other, working from the bottom of the roof up towards the top, with a final layer used to reinforce the ridgeline. Thatch roofs can withstand high winds and heavy rains, provide good thermal insulation and are easy to repair. Thatch is light and needs only a simple support structure, and is flexible so it can be used for any roof shape. On the downside, thatching is labour intensive and a certain level of skill is required. The materials can be expensive as reeds are increasingly imported from Europe to keep up with demand. Like all biomass materials, thatch is flammable which means that building restrictions may apply and home insurance can be high. Wood tiles have been used since medieval times in Britain. They are traditionally made by hand-splitting logs into small wedge shaped pieces, but today most are manufactured by machine. There are two basic types: shingles, which are sawn, and shakes, which are split. Shakes are thicker and have a more rustic, rough look, whilst shingles are thinner and smoother. Both come in a variety of lengths and are made from the heartwood of unseasoned wood. Hardwood is best, with cedar being the most popular, although any straight-grained wood can be used. Split bamboo can also be used to create Spanish-style tiles, and are popular in some countries, but bamboo has the disadvantage of decaying fast in wet conditions unless chemically treated. Wood tiles are laid from the bottom of the roof to the top, with each row overlapping the previous one. A cap is placed at the roof ridge. Typically tiles are nailed onto wood strips spaced a few inches apart between the roof beams, to allow air to circulate and prevent decay. Wood tiles last between 25 - 50 years. Like thatch, they give good insulation and are flexible so can cover any roof shape. They are highly resistant to wind, heavy snow and hail, but must be regularly cleaned of vegetative debris. They are also flammable, and building regulations may prohibit their use in urban areas. The recognised need to use renewable resources has led to a revival of traditional, natural building methods, along with a growing market for biomass roofing. Thatch and wood tiles are not only aesthetically appealing, but are durable and biodegradable. But their sustainability value is diminished if the materials have been imported or produced and treated with chemicals. Biomass roofing is only a true sustainable solution if the materials are obtained from a local, renewable source, and are grown, harvested and manufactured in an environmentally sensitive way (SustainableBuild). Using the sun to provide energy is split into two areas, solar panels which are used for heating water, and PV cells, which are used for creating electricity. A heating system tends to cost around A£2,000 installed and can usually provide enough hot water all year round, the problem from a value point of view is that it only costs around A£100 a year to provide this anyway. PV cells create a more significant amount of electricity which may allow you to sell some of the energy you have created back to the grid.References
Anke Val Haal, (1997) Sustainable Building, Vol. 3 Aye, L., Bamford, N., Charters, B. and Robinson, J., (2000) Environmentally sustainable development: a lifecycle costing approach for a commercial office building in Melbourne, Australia, Construction Management and Economics18, Taylor & Francis Ltd., 927 –934 Barlett, E. and Howard, H., (2000) Informing the decision makers on the cost and value of green building, Building Research & Information28(5/6), Taylor & Francis Ltd. London, 315 –324 Bon, R. and Hutchinson, K., (2000) Sustainable construction: some economic challenges, Building Research & Information28(5/6), Taylor & Francis Ltd. London, 301- 304 BogenstA¤tter,U., (2000) Prediction and optimisation of life-cycle costs in early design, Building Research & Information28(5/6), Taylor & Francis Ltd. London, 376 – 386 Bordass, W., (2000) Cost and value: fact and fiction, Building Research & Information28(5/6), Taylor & Francis Ltd. London, 338-352 Bourdeau, L., et al (1998) Sustainable development and the future construction – a comparison of visions from various countries, CIB working commission w82 future study in construction CIB report 225 Carter, K., and Fortune, C., (2002) Sustainability: exploration in research approaches, proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of the Built and Human Environment, Salford, 472 – 483 Castillano, M., Hurley, P., and Dobrovolny, P., (2000), High Performance Building Delivers Results – Communicating Productivity Benefits of Sustainable Building to Decision Makers in the Seattle Development Industry, Seattle City Light – Sustainable Demand Project, USA. CIB (1999) Agenda 21 on sustainable construction, CIB report publication 237, CIB, Rotterdam, The Netherlands Clife, M. and Bourke, K., (1998) Study on whole life costing, BRE Report Number, CR 366/98, CRC London Cole, R.J., Editorial, (2000) Cost and Value in Building Green, Building Research & Information, 28(5/6) 304 – 309 Cole, R. and Sterner, E., (2000) Reconciling theory and practice of life cycle costing, Building Research & Information28(5/6), Taylor & Francis Ltd. London, 368 – 375 Crossley, R., (2002), REPUTATION, RISK AND REWARD: The Business Case for Sustainability in the UK Property Sector, published by Sustainable Construction Task Group, BRE, UK DETR, (2000) Building a Better Quality of Life – a strategy for More Sustainable Construction, UK Heerwagen, J., (2000) Green building, organisational success and occupant productivity, Building Research & Information28(5/6), Taylor & Francis Ltd. London, 353 –367 Hill, R., and Bowen, P., (1997) Sustainable construction: Principles and a framework for attainment, Construction Management and Economics15, 223 –239 Hydes, K. and Creech, L., (2000) Reducing mechanical equipment cost: the economics of green design, Building Research & Information28(5/6), Taylor & Francis Ltd. London, pp.403 – 407 Jackson and Shipley (2007) Jackson and Shipley Builders Merchant Catalogue 2007. Lincolnshire. Johnson, S. D., (2000) The Economic Case for "High Performance Housing, Corporate Environmental Strategy 7, published by Elsevier Science inc., 350 – 361 Joseph Parr (2008) Joseph Parr Builders Merchant [Internet] Available from www.jparrboro.co.uk [Accessed 4 April 2008] Keeping, M., (2000) What about demand? Do investors want 'sustainable building', the proceeding of The Cutting Edge 2000, Oxford Brookes University Kibert, C., (1994), Proceedings of the First International Conference on Sustainable Construction, Tampa, University of Florida, 6-9 November 1994 Langdon, D. (2008) Spon's Architects and Builders Price Book 2008. 133rd Edition. London, Taylor and Francis Group. Miyatake Y., (1996) Technology development and sustainable construction, Journal of Management in Engineering, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1996, 23-27 Pearce, D. et al (1989) Blueprint for a green economy, Earthscan, London Raftery, J., (1989), Building Economics an Introduction, Oxford, UK Shiers, D., (1999) The Appraisal of 'Green Housing' in the UK commercial property sector, the proceeding of RICS Cutting Edge 1999, RICS. Smith, M. et al (1998) Green the Built Environment, Earthscan Publication Ltd, London Sterner, E., (2000) Life cycle costing and its use in the Swedish building sector, Building Research & Information28(5/6), Taylor & Francis Ltd. London, 387 – 393 Sustainable Build (2000-2008) Sustainable Build [Internet] Available from www.sustainablebuild.co.uk [Accessed 14 January 2008]. Travis Perkins (2008) Travis Perkins Builders Merchant [Internet] Available from www.travisperkins.co.uk [Accessed 4 April 2008]. Uher, T. E., (1999) Absolute Indicators of Sustainable Construction, Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the RICS Research Foundation (COBRA 1999)Universityof Salford, Salford, UK, 243 – 253 Yates, A., (2001) Quantifying the Business Benefits of Sustainable Housing – Summary of existing research finds, Centre for Sustainable Construction, BRECite this page
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The National Business Systems of Germany and the UK
Introduction
Both Germany and the UK are members of the European Union (EU) and participate in harmonised European legislation, including employment law, as well as a common capitalist market economy. However, despite these commonalities, there remain significant differences in the national business systems of the two countries, particularly with reference to the employment relationship and industrial relations (Brewster and Mayrhofer, 2012). This can be appreciated by looking at the two countries, first Germany, and then at the UK, in order to compare and contrast the two systems.Germany
The German model of capitalism is different from that in the UK, it is referred to as a social form of capitalism, or 'sessile marthektwirtscharft' (Edye and Lintner, 1996). The history and corporate culture with in Germany, and the development of the industrial structure, has been highly diverging, which has converged to create an industrial framework which is relatively tight, with close ties between the different stakeholders (Silvia, 2013). The relationship between the state, companies, and their various stakeholders, reflects the German approach towards capitalism, in which the systems should be regulated in a manner to produce socially acceptable outcomes (Edye and Lintner, 1996). The result has been a system where there is a high level of value placed on consensus, with the institutions that were created to embody the social values becoming self reinforcing mechanisms that have continued to propagate the same social values (Silvia, 2013; Edye and Lintner, 1996). This system can be seen in the way that the relationship between the firm and its various internal and external stakeholders has been manage. The country has historically had consensus built into the way in which governance takes place, with two tier board systems utilised by large organisation (Dimsdale, 1994). The two tier system consists first of a supervisory board, referred to as an aufsichtsrat and then a management board, referred to as a vorstand (Dimsdale, 1994). Although practices have been in place since 1884, the current co-determination is the system now in place was originally determined at the end of the Second World War, and initially found in the West German coal and steel industries (Silvia, 2013). The Cooperative Management Law which was introduced in 1951, along with the workers committee law of 1952, was amended in 1976 and 1972 respectively, when the framework was extended, and applied to all firms in Germany that had more than 2000 employees (Silvia, 2013). The regulations require that just below half of the supervisory board members for each company worker representatives (Silvia, 2013). The members of the supervisory board are elected by the trade unions and the shareholders, and the chairman always has a casting vote, and is always a representative of the shareholders (Silvia, 2013). The management board is elected by the supervisory board, with the management board given the responsibility for the day-to-day running of the firm (Silvia, 2013). It is a requirement that there is at least one representative of the employees on the management board (Silvia, 2013). Employees on the boards, and a significant level in the supervisory board, results in a strong voice for the employees, and supports the German view of capitalism. In research by Dickmann (2003), a comparison as it was found that the different structure, impacted heavily on employee and management attitudes, and resulted in some significant differences when compared to the rest of Europe, and other international markets. Germany, it was found had a high level of bias towards long-term outcomes (Silvia, 2013). This is supported with Hofstede's cultural dimensions, where there is a high level of long-term orientation, given a score of 83, which is seen as indicating that it is a very pragmatic company, with a strong view of working for future benefits, rather than the adoption of short termism, that is present within many European, including UK, cultures (The Hofstede centre, 2015). This is seen in the planning horizon used by the supervisory boards, which is approximately twice as long as the planning horizon used by compatible companies in the UK (Silvia, 2013). This long-term approach is also seen in other areas of the employment relationship, such as the way in which employees tend to stay with employers for longer periods of time, and companies seek to provide more long-term benefits in order to retain employees (Silvia, 2013). It is also shared by stakeholders, where shareholders may be more willing to wait for long-term results to pay dividends in terms of the investment value, and creditors may also take a long-term approach in aiding businesses that face difficulties (Silvia, 2013). In addition, the social concerns and voice also facilitate a higher level of cooperation. Therefore, the relationship between the unions and the employers tends to have a high level of cooperation when compared to other countries (Silvia, 2013). A good example of this may be seen when BMW, a German company, acquired Rover, a UK company. The company BMW made many long-term promises regarding the security of jobs in the UK, but failed to understand the differences in the culture, and suffered as a result of the lower level of cooperation, and higher level of conflict that was present in the relationship between unions and management in the UK operations (IPA, 2003). The problems resulted in the failure of Rover, with the company only BMW only retaining the mini Cooper group. This demonstrates not only the differences between the two systems, but the way in which they may clash. For this reason, a number of German companies have found it difficult to operate internationally without adapting their systems to facilitate a more liberal Anglo-Saxon model of operation (Brewster and Mayrhofer, 2012; Schmitt, 2003). Interestingly, it has been found that despite the high level of inward foreign direct investment into Germany by companies that have a less rigid approach to business, that the strong institutional culture in Germany appears to be remaining intact (McDonald, Tuselman, and Heise, 2003), rather than moving to a point of convergence where there is a hybrid result. Notably, even when German multinationals move outside of their own country, although they adapt to the more liberal approaches, the aspects of the perspective of the social relationship of remains in place, with employees frequently having a greater voice than is legally mandated (Gumbrell-McCormick, and Hyman, 2006). In addition, it has not been unusual historically for bankers whole places on the boards, to promote a long-term relationship between the lenders and the businesses, as well as have an influence on the way business is undertaken. However, this has been one area that has changed in recent years, due to the aspect of conflicts of interest associated with lenders dealing with many firms (Silvia, 2013). This created the potential for accusations of insider dealing, and concerns of conflicting interests, especially during times of credit crisis.The UK
The UK operates under the Anglo-American model of capitalism, where external influences are generally resisted, whether they are from union influences, or from other stakeholders such as lenders or creditors (Hutton, 1996). The priorities within the UK system differ greatly, with a high level of individualism, and a lower level of institutional involvement in the day-to-day running of organisations. An examination of the Anglo-American model demonstrates that the view of collectivism and employers is very different. For example, in the UK, the basis of employment law is founded on the assumption of the master and servant relationship (Lockton,2008). The foundation of the relationship is based on compliance, and while there is employment law to ensure fair treatment of employees, the approach tends to be one that is reactive rather than proactive. The Hofstede centre, which gives indications of the cultural dimensions for different countries, demonstrates a significant difference in the UK compared to Germany. For example, while long-term orientation in Germany gains a score of 83, in the UK it only gains a score of 51 (The Hofstede centre, 2015). This is also supported by the dimension of indulgence, which tends to be low in countries where there is a willingness to say for the future, and consider others, with a score of 44 Germany, but 69 for the UK is (The Hofstede Centre, 2015). The approach towards the employment relationship and industrial relations in Germany was often characterised by the use of collective agreements, as seen with the proactive role of unions, and a high level of employee representation on boards (Hutton, 1996). This is not seen in the UK. Individualism is much higher, with far fewer collective agreements in place compared to Germany, and more contracts negotiated on an individual basis (Buchanan and Huczynski, 2010). This is also seen in the cultural dimensions school for individualism, which is 67 is seen as relatively high for Germany, but is even higher in the UK, with a score of 89 (The Hofstede Centre, 2015). The approach is reflective of a greater level of short-term thinking, with a greater emphasis placed by management on short-term results of the firms, and needs to meet stakeholder needs. As seen above with Silvia (2013), the planning horizon of Germans firm supervisory boards have been found to be approximately twice as long as UK boards. A short termist approach is likely to be influential not only of employment relations, but overall strategic approaches, and the way in which investments, including in employees, are perceived by management. This also impact on the way in which collectivism is perceived within UK businesses. Different models of collectivism have been proposed by Edye and Lintner, (1996) where it was recognised that relationships between unions and types of cooperation or cooperative practices could manifest in different ways. Whereas the German model appears to have a high level of alignment, the relationship between the unions and employers in the UK has a higher level of conflict (Buchanan and Huczyniski, 2010). The conflict in nature of this relationship may be seen in the 1970s, when there were many strikes under the Conservative government led by Margaret Thatcher, with Margaret Thatcher seeking to break the power of the unions. There was a general perception by many employers that unions had too much power, and were exercising it at the cost of business, economic progress, and profits (Edye and Lintner, 1996). Since the 1970s there has been a significant move away from any form of collectivism in the UK, with union membership continually dwindling, and while unions still have a role to play, their ability to exercise influence has declined significantly (Buchanan and Huczynski, 2010). Notably, unlike Germany, it is very unusual to find any union members on boards of British firms. The only exceptions are organisations such as Nissan, who have bought Japanese practices into the UK workplace, and have included employees on their board as a way of seeking to improve employment relations, and develop a higher level of cooperation in the workplace. However, overall, the model of cooperation tends to be viewed with a degree of suspicion, due to the long-term history of conflict and perception of non-aligned interests between employers and employees, and the fermentation of cooperative practices is only emerged in terms of requirement as a result of the implementation of EU law and the requirement for workers councils for certain employees.Conclusion
There are significant differences between the German and the Anglo-American business systems, the former embodying long-term approaches with a high level of social concern, resulting in significant institutional-ism that become self reinforcing in Germany. By comparison, the UK has a more liberal economy, with a greater emphasis on short-term results, and a higher level of importance placed on individualism. Importantly, UK companies have fewer compliance requirements in the context of employee voices in the workplace environment, and notably many of the existing legislative practices which are required to comply with EU law, have resulted from a requirement for harmonisation and implemented through the concept of subsidiarity. Both systems reflect the historical background of employment relationships within the country, and the way in which employees, have, or have not, be able to influence the employment relationship, and workplace practices.References
Brewster, C, Mayrhofer, W, (2012), Handbook of Research on Comparative Human Resource Management, London, Edward El'sgar Publishing Buchanan, D; Huczynski, A, (2010) Organisational Behaviour, Harlow, FT/Prentice Hall Edye D, Lintner V (1996) Contemporary Europe, London, Clarendon Press Flynn, M, Upchurch, M, Muller-Carwmn, M, Schroder, H, (2013), Trade union responses to ageing workforces in the UK and Germany, Human Relations, 66(1), 45-64 Gumbrell-McCormick, R, Hyman, R, (2006), Embedded collectivism? Workplace representation in France and Germany, Industrial Relations Journal, 37(5), 473-491 Hutton, W, (1996). The State We're In, London, Jonathan Cape. IPA Case Study, (2003), Informing & Consulting Your Workforce: The BMW Hams Hall Plant Council, from https://www.ipa-involve.com/EasysiteWeb/getresource.axd?AssetID=52317 McDonald, F, Tuselman, H, Heise, A, (2003), Employee Relations in German Multinationals in an Anglo-Saxon Setting: Toward a Germanic Version of the Anglo-Saxon Approach? European Journal of Industrial Relations, 9(3), 327-349 Schmitt, M, (2003), Deregulation of the German Industrial Relations System via Foreign Direct Investment: Are the Subsidiaries of Anglo-Saxon MNCs a Threat for the Institutions of Industrial Democracy in Germany? Economic and Industrial Democracy, 24(3), 349-377 Silvia, S, (2013), Holding the Shop Together: German Industrial Relations in the Post-War Era, Ithaca, Cornell University Press The Hofstede Centre (2015), from https://geert-hofstede.com/germany.htmlCite this page
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Work Related Stress in Healthcare
Stress and staff absence
Chronic stress has been linked to "burnout"(Khamisa et al., 2015; Dalmolin et al., 2014), or a state of emotional exhaustion under extreme stress related to reduced professional fulfilment (Dalmolin et al., 2014) and "compassion fatigue", where staff have experienced so many upsetting situations that they find it difficult to continue empathising with their patients (Wilkinson, 2014). As previously discussed, reducing staffing levels contribute to stress in nursing staff, and in this way chronic stress within the workplace launches a self-perpetuating cycle of understaffing; increased stress leads to increased illness, more staff absence and increased understaffing. In turn, these negative emotions also reduce job satisfaction and prompt many staff to consider leaving the nursing profession, further reducing staffing availability for services (Fitzpatrick and Wallace, 2011).Reasons for work-related stress amongst healthcare professionals
Studies amongst nursing staff have also reported stress occurring as the result of poor and unsupportive management, poor communication skills amongst team members, institutional and organisational issues (e.g. outdated or restrictive hospital policies) or bullying and harassment (RCN, 2009). Even seemingly minor issues have been reported as exacerbating stress amongst nursing staff, for example a lack of common areas to take breaks in, changing shift patterns, and even difficulty and expense of car parking (Happell et al., 2013). Work related stress can particularly affect student or newly qualified nurses, who often report higher expectations of job satisfaction from working in the profession, they have worked hard and aspired to join, and are therefore particularly prone to experiencing disappointment on discovering that they do not experience the job satisfaction that they presumed they would do whilst training. Student and newly qualified nurses may also have clear ideas from their recent training on how healthcare organisations should be run and how teams should be managed, and may then be disillusioned when they discover that the reality is that many departments could in fact benefit from improvements and further training for more experienced staff in these areas (Wojtowicz et al., 2014; Stanley and Matchett, 2014). Nursing staff are also likely to, on occasion, find themselves in a clinical situation that they feel unprepared for, or do not have the necessary knowledge to provide the best possible care for patients, and this may cause stress and anxiety (RCN, 2009). They may also be exposed to upsetting and traumatic situations, particularly in fields such as emergency or intensive care medicine (Wilkinson, 2014). Moral distress can also cause strong feelings of stress amongst healthcare professionals. This psychological state occurs when a discrepancy occurs between the action that an individual takes, and the action that an individual feels they should have taken (Fitzpatrick and Wallace, 2011). This may occur if a nurse feels that a patient should receive an intervention in order to experience best possible care, but is unable to deliver it, for example due to organisational policy constraints, or a lack of support from other members of staff (Wojtowicz et al., 2014). For example, a nurse may be providing end of life care to a patient who has recently had an unplanned admission onto a general ward but is expected to die shortly. The nurse may feel that this patient would benefit from having a member of staff sitting with them until they died. However, due to a lack of available staffing this does not happen as the nurse must attend to other patients in urgent need of care. If the patient dies without someone with them, the nurse may experiences stress, anger, guilt and unhappiness over the situation as they made the moral judgement that the dying patient "should" have had a member of staff with them, but were unable to provide this without risking compromising the safety of other patients on the ward (Stanley and Matchett, 2014). One large scale questionnaire based study in the USA on moral distress amongst healthcare professionals has shown that moral distress is more common amongst nurses than other staff such as physicians or healthcare assistants. The authors suggested that this may be due to a discrepancy between the level of autonomy that a nurse has in making care decisions, (especially following disagreement with a doctor, who has a high level of autonomy), while experiencing a higher sense of responsibility for patient wellbeing than healthcare assistants, who were more likely to consider themselves to be following the instructions of the nurses than personally responsible for patient outcomes (Whitehead et al., 2015).Recommendations for policies to address work related stress
It is acknowledged that many individuals find that being asked to perform tasks that they have not been adequately trained or prepared for can be very stressful. As such management teams should also try to ensure as far as possible that individuals are only assigned roles for which they have adequate training and abilities, and support employees with training to improve skills where necessary (RCN, 2009). Surveys have frequently reported that organisational issues such as a lack of intuitive work patterns, overloading of workloads and an unpleasant working environment can all contribute to work related stress. Organisations can reduce the impact of these by developing programmes of working hours with working staff and adhering to them, making any necessary improvements to the environment (e.g. ensuring that malfunctioning air conditioning is fixed), and that incidents of understaffing are reduced as much as possible (RCN, 2009). Issues such as insomnia and difficulty in adapting to changing shift patterns can also be assisted by occupational health, for example by encouraging healthy eating and exercise (Blau, 2011; RCN, 2005). For example, in 2005 the RCN published an information booklet for nursing staff explaining the symptoms of stress, ways in which it can be managed e.g. relaxation through exercise or alternative therapies, and when help for dealing with stress should be sought (RCN, 2005). More recently, internet based resources are available from the NHS to help staff identify if they need assistance, and how and why it is important to access it (NHS Employers, 2015). Witnessing or experiencing traumatic or upsetting events is an unavoidable aspect of nursing, and can even result in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, there are ways in which staff can be encouraged by their management teams and organisations to deal with the emotions that these circumstances produce, limiting the negative and stressful consequences of these events. This may include measures such as counselling or even peer support programmes through the occupational health departments (Wilkinson, 2014). Staff should also be encouraged to use personal support networks e.g. family, as this can be an important and effective source of support, however studies have shown that support within the work place is most beneficial, particularly if this can be combined with a culture where healthcare professionals are encouraged to express their feelings (Lowery and Stokes, 2005). One commonly cited reason for work related stress amongst nurses is the incompetence or unethical behaviours of colleagues, and a lack of opportunity to report dangerous or unethical practice without fear of reprisal. Therefore it is important that institutions and management teams ensure that there is an adequate care quality monitoring programme in place, and a culture where concerns can be reported for further investigation without fear of reprisal, particularly with respect to senior staff or doctors (Stanley and Matchett, 2014). It has been reported that in the year 2012-2013, 1,458 assaults were reported against NHS staff (NHS Business Service Authority, 2013). Violence and abusive behaviour towards nursing staff is an acknowledged cause of stress and even PTSD, and staff have a right to provide care without fear (Nursing Standard News, 2015; Itzhaki et al., 2015). Institutions therefore have a responsibility towards their staff to provide security measures such as security staff, workplace design (e.g. locations of automatically locking doors) and policies for the treatment of potentially violent patients e.g. those with a history of violence or substance abuse issues (Gillespie et al., 2013). As previously discussed, nurses are more likely than other healthcare professionals to experience moral distress as the result of a discrepancy between the actions they believe are correct and the actions they are able to perform (Whitehead et al., 2015). However there are policies that can be introduced into healthcare organisations to reduce its occurrence, and the severity with which it can affect nursing staff. Studies have shown that nurses who were encouraged to acknowledge and explore feelings of moral distress were able to process and overcome these in a less damaging manner than those who did not (Matzo and Sherman, 2009; Deady and McCarthy, 2010). Additionally, it is thought that moral distress is less frequent in institutions and teams that encourage staff to discuss ethical issues with a positive attitude (Whitehead et al., 2015). For example, institutions could employ a designated contact person for staff to discuss stressful ethical issues with, or set up the facility for informal and anonymous group discussion, for example on a restricted access internet-based discussion board (Matzo and Sherman, 2009)Conclusion
Work related stress is responsible for significant costs to the NHS in terms of staffing availability and financial loss from staff absence from stress itself or co-morbidities that can be exacerbated by stress (RCN, 2009), for example hypertension and diabetes (Phiri et al., 2014; RCN, 2009, 2014a). The loss of valuable and qualified staff from the profession is also a significant cost to health services, and of course exacerbates the situation by increasing understaffing further, which in turn increases stress for the remaining staff (Hyrkas and Morton, 2013). It can also exert a significant cost to healthcare professionals who experience it, in terms of their ability to work, their personal health, effects on personal relationships (Augusto Landa et al., 2008) and job satisfaction (Fitzpatrick and Wallace, 2011). However, organisations can implement recommendations to reduce work related stress, for example by encouraging a positive and supportive culture for staff by offering interventions such as counselling (Wilkinson, 2014; RCN, 2005). Furthermore, interventions such as encouraging the reporting of unsafe or unethical practice - a commonly cited source of stress amongst nurses (RCN, 2009; Stanley and Matchett, 2014) - may also contribute to improving the quality of patient care.References
Augusto Landa, J. M., LA³pez-Zafra, E., Berrios Martos, M. P. and Aguilar-LuzA³n, M. D. C. (2008). The relationship between emotional intelligence, occupational stress and health in nurses: a questionnaire survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45 (6), p.888–901. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17509597 Blau, G. (2011). Exploring the impact of sleep”related impairments on the perceived general health and retention intent of an Emergency Medical Services (EMS) sample. Career Development International, 16 (3), p.238–253. [Online]. Available at: https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/13620431111140147 Dalmolin, G. de L., Lunardi, V. L., Lunardi, G. L., Barlem, E. L. D. and da Silveira, R. S. (2014). Moral distress and Burnout syndrome: are there relationships between these phenomena in nursing workers? Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem, 22 (1), p.35–42. [Online]. Available at: https://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-11692014000100035 Deady, R. and McCarthy, J. (2010). A Study of the Situations, Features, and Coping Mechanisms Experienced by Irish Psychiatric Nurses Experiencing Moral Distress. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 46 (3), p.209–220. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20591128 Fitzpatrick, J. J. and Wallace, M. (2011). Encyclopedia of Nursing Research. 3rd ed. New York: Springer Publishing Company. Gillespie, G., Gates, D. M. and Berry, P. (2013). Stressful Incidents of Physical Violence Against Emergency Nurses. OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 18 (1). [Online]. Available at: https://ojin.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Vol-18-2013/No1-Jan-2013/Stressful-Incidents-of-Physical-Violence-against-Emergency-Nurses.html Happell, B., Dwyer, T., Reid-Searl, K., Burke, K. J., Caperchione, C. M. and Gaskin, C. J. (2013). Nurses and stress: recognizing causes and seeking solutions. Journal of Nursing Management, 21 (4), p.638–647. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23700980 HSE. (2014). Statistics - Stress-related and psychological disorders in Great Britain. Health and Safety Executive. [Online]. Available at: https://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/causdis/stress/index.htm Hyrkas, K. and Morton, J. L. (2013). International perspectives on retention, stress and burnout. Journal of Nursing Management, 21 (4), p.603–604. [Online]. Available at: Itzhaki, M., Peles-Bortz, A., Kostistky, H., Barnoy, D., Filshtinsky, V. and Bluvstein, I. (2015). Exposure of mental health nurses to violence associated with job stress, life satisfaction, staff resilience, and post-traumatic growth. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 24 (5), p.403–412. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26257307 Khamisa, N., Oldenburg, B., Peltzer, K. and Ilic, D. (2015). Work Related Stress, Burnout, Job Satisfaction and General Health of Nurses. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12 (1), p.652–666. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4306884/ Lowery, K. and Stokes, M. A. (2005). Role of peer support and emotional expression on posttraumatic stress disorder in student paramedics. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18 (2), p.171–179. [Online]. Available at: doi:10.1002/jts.20016 Matzo, M. L. and Sherman, D. W. (2009). Palliative Care Nursing: Quality Care to the End of Life. 3rd ed. New York: Springer Publishing Company. NHS Business Service Authority. (2013). 2012-13 figures released for reported physical assaults against NHS staff. NHS Business Service Authority. [Online]. Available at: https://www.nhsbsa.nhs.uk/4380.aspx NHS Choices. (2015). Stress, anxiety and depression. NHS Choices. [Online]. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/stress-anxiety-depression/understanding-stress/ NHS Employers. (2015). Health work and wellbeing. NHS Employers. Available at: https://www.nhsemployers.org/your-workforce/retain-and-improve/staff-experience/health-work-and-wellbeing Nursing Standard News. (2015). Stress at work affecting nurses' health, survey finds. Nursing Standard, 29 (27), p.8–8. [Online]. Available at: https://journals.rcni.com/doi/10.7748/ns.29.27.8.s6 Phiri, L. P., Draper, C. E., Lambert, E. V. and Kolbe-Alexander, T. L. (2014). Nurses' lifestyle behaviours, health priorities and barriers to living a healthy lifestyle: a qualitative descriptive study. BMC Nursing, 13. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4264254/ RCN. (2005). Working well initiative: Managing your stress. A guide for nurses. Royal College of Nursing. [Online]. Available at: https://www.rcn.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/78515/001484.pdf RCN. (2009). Work-related stress. Royal College of Nursing. [Online]. Available at: https://www.rcn.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/274473/003531.pdf RCN. (2014a). Importance of stress awareness. [Online]. Available at: https://www.rcn.org.uk/newsevents/news/article/uk/importance_of_stress_awareness RCN. (2014b). Two thirds of staff have considered leaving the NHS. [Online]. Available at: https://www.rcn.org.uk/newsevents/news/article/uk/two_thirds_of_staff_have_considered_leaving_the_nhs Sharma, P., Davey, A., Davey, S., Shukla, A., Shrivastava, K. and Bansal, R. (2014). Occupational stress among staff nurses: Controlling the risk to health. Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 18 (2), p.52–56. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4280777/ Stanley, M. J. C. and Matchett, N. J. (2014). Understanding how student nurses experience morally distressing situations: Caring for patients with different values and beliefs in the clinical environment. Journal of Nursing Education and Practice, 4 (10), p.p133. [Online]. Available at: doi:10.5430/jnep.v4n10p133 Whitehead, P. B., Herbertson, R. K., Hamric, A. B., Epstein, E. G. and Fisher, J. M. (2015). Moral Distress Among Healthcare Professionals: Report of an Institution-Wide Survey. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 47 (2), p.117–125. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25440758 Wilkinson, S. (2014). How nurses can cope with stress and avoid burnout: Stephanie Wilkinson offers a literature review on the workplace stressors experienced by emergency and trauma nurses. Emergency Nurse, 22 (7), p.27–31. [Online]. Available at: https://rcnpublishing.com/doi/abs/10.7748/en.22.7.27.e1354 Wojtowicz, B., Hagen, B. and Van Daalen-Smith, C. (2014). No place to turn: Nursing students' experiences of moral distress in mental health settings. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 23 (3), p.257–264. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23980930Cite this page
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Domestic and International HRM
Introduction
The world has become more globalised and more competitive than ever before, and as more firms begin to operate in the international marketplace there is an extensive search for different elements of competitive advantage (Beck, 2011). A major component of gaining an advantage over competitors could be in terms of human resource management and especially in international human resource management. The quality of management seems to be more critical in international, than domestic human resource management too, making it even more vital that firms are effective in this area (Monks et al., 2001). Human resource management "refers to those activities undertaken by an organisation to effectively utilise its human resources" (Dowling et al., 2008: 3). These activities include those such as staffing, performance management, compensation, training and development and human resource planning. Indeed, human resource management is key for any organisation. Ozbilgin et al., (2014) assert that human resource management is a function which encompasses the methods of compensating, appraising, training and selecting employees within an organisation, as well as complying with health and safety, labour and equal employment laws. International human resource management can be seen as the worldwide management of these human resources (Brewster and Suutari, 2005). Schular and Tarique (2007:717) claim that the field of international human resource management is concerned with "understanding, researching, applying and revising all human resource activities in internal and external contexts as they impact the processes of managing human resources". This essay will look at human resource management, and see what is similar and what is different when human resource management goes international. This is important due to the fact that there are many challenges in managing overseas activities for companies, and this is why the third section of this essay will be addressing the issue of best practice in international human resource management. Finally, the conclusion will draw these sections together to look at how the challenging aspect of international human resource management.The similarities between domestic and international human resource management
This first section of the essay will look at the similarities between domestic and international human resource management. Human resource management is similar in both the domestic and international marketplaces as they have similar basic functions in businesses as mentioned within the introduction. All human resource functions have the key aim of to effectively utilising the human capital which is present within the organisation. Aswathappa (2008) asserts that human resource functions are basically the same whether they extend to several countries, or if they are specific to one single country. Regardless of the countries human resource managers are in, the HR manager still needs to plan the human resources, train and develop people, compensate them, hire the correct employees in the correct number, as well as maintain and motivate the workers in the company, and this still stands true whether or not this is in a domestic or global setting (Aswathappa, 2008). As well as this, the environmental forces which impact upon the functioning of a human resource department are the same, depending on if the business is global or domestic (Aswathappa, 2008). These all include political, cultural, economic and legal external constraints, and they can influence the way that human resource functions "are carried out both in domestic as well as in global businesses" (Aswathappa, 2008: 67). It can be seen that a human resource function in a business has one overriding objective, which is ensuring the effectiveness of an organisation through interventions such as multiskil developments, team building, motivation, performance management and talent retention. Regardless of if the company is a multinational one operating in ten different nations, or a domestic business these activities are still present and are the key tasks and requirements of the human resource function, and as such still require effective management by human resource professionals. (Aswathappa, 2008).The differences between domestic and international human resource management
After looking at the similarities, the differences between these forms of human resource management will now be looked at. International human resource management can be seen as being characterised by more "heterogeneous functions, greater involvement in employers personal life, different emphasis on managing training, and more external influences" (Alhafaji, 1995: 90). International HRM managers are needed to be even more diligent due to the fact there is usually greater dissatisfaction in a multinational environment than a domestic one (Alhafaji, 1995). Dowling et al., (2008) assert that they find the complexity of operating in different countries and having employees from a range of different national categories is one of the key variables in differentiating international human resource management from domestic human resource management. These result in six factors which contribute to this complexity; more HR activities, the need for a broader perspective, more involvement in employees personal lives, changes in the emphasis as employees consist of more expatriates who mix with locals, the exposure to risk and an increased range of external influences (Dowling et al., 2008). More human resource activities are needed in order to operate within an international environment, such as international tax, relocation and orientation as well as having more services for expatriates as well as language translation services (Dowling et al., 2008). These are all services which would not be necessary within the domestic market. There is also a need for a broader perspective as those HR managers who work in a domestic environment will normally administer human resource programmes for one national group of employees, these are all covered by one compensation policy and also taxed by the same national government (Dowling et al., 2008). In terms of risk, there are also more human and financial consequences of failing within the international marketplace, as opposed to in the domestic market. Expatriate failure and the underperformance of employees on international assignments, for example, are very costly to international corporations. The cost of such employees is often three times as high as if they were to be working within their domestic market (Dowling et al., 2008). Keeley (2001) also asserts that there are difficulties in integrating host country national managers into the process of their subsidiaries that are abroad. In more recent times, major multinationals must now take into consideration the political risk as well as terrorism and the spending which is needed on protection against terrorism, in light of the 9/11 attacks in New York (Dowling et al., 2008). In International human resource management there are also more external factors, such as the types of government, the state of different economies and different generally accepted practices of doing business in the various companies where a multinational corporation may operate within (Dowling et al., 2008). International human resource management also has more involvement in the personal life of its employees. For example, it is necessary for human resources to understand every aspect of compensation packages provided in the foreign assignment, and the department would need to know the readiness of employee's family to relocate, as well as supporting the family in adjusting to life in a foreign country (Dowling et al., 2008). Harris et al., (2004) assert that another key difference is the cultural differences that are needed to be managed in international human resource management. With the increasing internationalisation of employment, employees in the same organisations now possess many different values and attitudes towards both work and their personal lives. There are many stereotypes inherent within these different cultures, such as Americans being work obsessed and the Japanese being overly polite (Harris et al., 2004). These national stereotypes show that different nationalities work in different ways, and it is therefore necessary that an international human resource manager has an awareness of these cultural differences, and that this can affect many different human resource functions such as recruitment and selection, as well as performance appraisal (Harris et al., 2004). Therefore, there needs to be care taken by international human resource managements on deciding whether to standardise the processes in human resource departments around the world, or choose to localise them dependent on the area even though this initial setup may be more costly and complex, but could be more effective in the long run.Best practice in international human resource management
The need to develop best practice within international human resource management is becoming increasingly important, as more and more enterprises turn international and expand worldwide to tap into growing markets (Geringer et al., 2002). Stiles and Trevor (2006) attempt to identify the ways in which multinational organisations should manage their people in companies which are diverse in terms of the culture and geography that they encompass. This is because expanding internationally requires the attention of the company to have both global standards, as well as local market sensitivity, and this was seen as one of the marks of best practice within international human resource management (Stiles and Trevor, 2006). They move on to say that across all the organisations studied it was important to have rigorous and selection procedures, as well as training and development across all levels of the company, and developmental appraisal as well as performance linked pay (Stiles and Trevor, 2006). Other best practices included having flexible job design, team working as well as two way communications within the company. Values based employment practices were seen as important, and these enabled having a successful cultural fit of employees within the company, which increased commitment and retention in the organisation (Stiles and Trevor, 2006). Overall, it can be seen that when trying to achieve best practice within international human resource management, that it is important for organisations to focus on local knowledge, but with also ensuring there is a centralised "HQ-centric view of the world" in these departments too (Stiles and Trevor, 2006). However, Stiles and Trevor (2006) conclude by saying that it is not enough for organisations to simply adopt best practice, or to attempt to develop innovative solutions in isolation. Instead, the formulation and execution of these needs to be aligned with business needs at all levels, both on a corporate level and locally. These also need to be not only integrated with other human resource practices but with all the various human, social and organisational elements in the organisation that effectiveness is dependent on. This can be seen as the responsibility of the leadership within the company, as leadership capability "is central to the effective management of human capital" (Stiles and Trevor, 2006: 52). As well as this, Marchington and Grugulis (2000) assert that searching for a best practice is problematic. This is because, according to their studies there are times when asserted best practices appear contradictory messages. This is due to the fact that human resource practices are not universally applicable. They move on to state that "in presenting the argument for the adoption of best practice HRM, the nature of the employment relationship itself is over simplified and distorted" (Marchington and Grugulis, 2000: 1121). Therefore it could be argued that there is no generic, one size fits all best practice of international human resources that can be applied to every multinational organisation. Instead, organisations need to consider how each process would impact and effect their specific company and its needs.Conclusion
Human resource practitioners and researchers are becoming concerned with the shift towards more globalised businesses, and the impact that this has on international human resource management (Kiessling and Harvey, 2005). This is becoming even more of a pressing issue as multinational enterprises themselves have realised that human resource management can play an extremely important role in gaining and retaining a competitive advantage (Schuler and Jackson, 2005). It has been seen in this essay that there are a number of differences between international and domestic human resource management. These are differences which are large enough to have a sizeable and quantifiable impact upon an organisation if they are not taken into account. The main differences identified are the fact that there are a wide range of problems such as international taxation and dealing with expatriates and an assortment of different cultures in international companies that domestic human resource managers would not need to deal with. However, similarities still exist, and the main function of the human resource department, to effectively create organisational effectiveness through effective management of employees in the company, remains the same regardless of how many countries the company may operate in. It was also seen that there is no best practice in regards of international human resource management, due to the fact that companies are not the same in how they operate and the employees in them. Therefore, organisations need to consider how different policies and procedures would impact their employees before implementing them.Bibliography
Alhafaji, A. (1995) Competitive global Management. Florida: St Lucie Press. Aswathappa, K. (2008) International Human Resource Management. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill. Beck, T. (2011) Differences and Similarities between International and Domestic Human Resource Management. Norderstedt: GRIN. Brewster, C. Suutari, V. (2005) Global HRM: aspects of a research agenda. Personnel Review. 34(1). 5-21. Dowling, P. Festing, M. Engle, A. (2008) International Human Resource Management. Melbourne: Thomson. Geringer, J. Frayne, C. Milliman, J. (2002) In search of best practice in international human resource management. Human Resource Management. 41(1). 5-30. Harris, H. Brewster, C. Sparrow, P. (2004) International Human Resource Management. London: CIPD. Keeley, T. (2001) International Human Resource Management in Japanese Firms: Their Greatest Challenge. London: Palgrave Macmillan Kiessling, T. Harvey, M. (2005) Strategic global human resource management research in the twenty first century. Journal of Human Resource Management. 16(1) 22-45. Marchington, M. Grugulis, I. (2000) Best practice human resource management: perfect opportunity or dangerous illusion. The International Journal of Human Resource Management. 11(6). 1104-1124. Monks, K. Scullion, H. Creaner, J. (2001) HRM in the International firm: Evidence from Ireland. Personnel Review. 30. 536-553. Ozbilgin, M. Groutsis, D. Harvey, V. (2014) International Human Resource Management. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schuler, R. Jackson, S. (2005) A Quarter Century review of human resource management in the US. Management Review. 16. 11-35. Schuler, R. Tarique, I. (2007) IHRM: A North American perspective, a thematic update and suggestions for future research. International Journal of HRM. 18(5). 717-744. Stiles, P. Trevor, J. (2006) [Online] Best practice and key themes in global human resource management. Available from: https://www.cihrm.jbs.cam.ac.uk/research/ghrra.htmlCite this page
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Improving Motivation Among Differing Staff Groups
Introduction
The increasing level of competition in the business environment has made people management an important area to be observed by organisations and is considered to be essential for their survival (Panda, Pradhan and Mishra, 2014). This, in effect, gives rise to the need of devising motivational tools for employees (Salmela-Aro and Nurmi, 2004) as they are regarded as the most valuable asset for organisations (Shaharuddin, 2013). Since employees belonging to different groups are influenced by different motivational factors, managers face the challenge of developing separate motivational tools for each group which suit their requirements (Ozlen, 2014). The motivation level of graduate trainees in influenced by the ease of integration (Harvey and Mason, 1996), opportunity to exercise the skills learnt (Regan, 2010) and the degree of importance of the work assigned to them (Davies and Hertig, 2008), while that of single parents is influenced by the convenience (Crawford, 2009) and financial independence (Wel and Knijn, 2007) they get, the opportunity to socialize (Peacey, 2009) and pursue higher education (Gingerbread, 2012). Older workers are instead motivated by factors such as job and physical security (Kanfer and Ackermann, 2004), interesting and creative work, and a sense of accomplishment (Lord, 2004). The HR department is thus entrusted with the responsibility to devise motivational tools for all employees, which will then lead to higher productivity and outputs.The role and Importance of Motivation at Work
The concept of motivation at work is not new and has been studied by many researchers; Kreitner and Cassidy (2011) provide the simplest definition according to which, motivation can be defined as the psychological process which drives the purpose and direction of one's behaviour. Of all the responsibilities of a manager, employee motivation is perhaps the most complexed one (Cong and Van, 2013). The reason behind this is the continuous change in the factors which motivate workforce (Podmoroff, 2005). Many factors underpin employee motivation at different hierarchical levels, among which pay is the common motivator which works for all age groups (Linz, 2004). In the highly competitive job markets, devising motivational strategies for employees has become a part of employer branding for organisations, through which they intend to be the employer of choice for job seekers and work towards retaining the existing employees (Jain and Bhatt, 2015).Motivating Recently Appointed Graduate Trainees
Work-related Characteristics of Graduate Trainees
Considering the kind of learning and experiences they have had while pursuing their degree, fresh graduates tend to develop leadership skills, whereby they gain the capability of meeting deadlines and producing good quality work with little supervision (Coleman and Glover, 2010). This leads them to an expectation of being empowered at their workplace to do their work on their own, either individually or in groups with in-depth guidance, but little supervision (Wiata, 2006). There are different viewpoints about the work attributes of graduate trainees; while some researchers talk about their enthusiasm to perform their best in their first job (Hogarth et al., 2007), there are others who state that performing a full-time job role in a professional environment may prove to be stressful for a recent graduate, resulting in lower levels of productivity (Jusoh, Simun and Chong, 2011).Factors Influencing Motivation
A critical factor influencing the motivational level of graduate trainees is the speed at which they are integrated into the organisation and are given the chance to effectively contribute towards achieving their career goals (Harvey and Mason, 1996). Another important aspect is the opportunity which graduates get to exercise the skills they have learnt throughout their degree (Regan, 2010); if they are provided with work that is irrelevant to their career aspirations, they may be demotivated since the beginning. Because of their enthusiasm and willingness to perform their best at work, the importance of the work given to them greatly influences their motivation to continue working (Davies and Hertig, 2008). Therefore, if they feel that the work in which they are putting too effort is not very important, their commitment to work may fall.Recommended Motivational Tools
Managers supervising graduate trainees must ensure that they inform the graduates well about the objectives and value of the work assigned to them, so they have a higher sense of responsibility in completing it, and will also feel valued (Clarke et al., 2015). The HR procedures must include a comprehensive orientation session for all graduate trainees, whereby they would feel welcomed to the company and would also get a chance to know about the broader goals of the organisation as a whole and their relative departments (Williams, 2010). This session should also include an overview of their rotations in different departments during the traineeship program and its purpose (Wiata, 2006); when they are informed that they are hired to be the future leaders of the organisation, they will feel motivated to reach that position from their first day at work. Messmer (2011) suggests that during the first three months, the HR department can take the initiative to assign mentors for all graduate trainees, who can be approached whenever the trainees have concerns regarding understanding organisational culture or deal with other related issues; this would make them feel valued and cared for, and would help them adapt to the organisational work environment quickly.Motivating Full-Time Working Single Parents
Work-Related Characteristics of Single Parents
In the literature, there are hardly any contradictory views about the reasons behind employment undertaken by single parents; most researchers agree that the main underlying reason is the financial support they want to provide to their children (Gingerbread, 2012). Single mothers, especially are not only faced with a difficulty in managing the job along with looking after children, but also struggle in obtaining employment; this happens because of the cultural stereotype that women can either be good mothers, or good employees, but cannot be both at the same time (Miller, 2012). Hoggart et al. (2006) further support this view through their theory, which explains the work orientations of single parents; according to that, single parents are more interested in their child-care focused role when their children are too young, whereas they are more inclined to be interested in career progression when their children grow older. This may also impart that single parents may be good workers as they experience the art of prioritising things in their personal life, and Reeleder et al. (2006) identified that setting priorities has become one of the greatest challenges being faced by managers in the competitive business environment.Factors Influencing Motivation
Perhaps the most important thing that influences the work motivation of single parents is convenience (Crawford, 2009). Other job aspirations may include getting personal benefits, such as more opportunity to socialise as opposed to staying isolated (Peacey, 2009). Pertaining specifically to single mothers, Wel and Knijn (2007) pointed out that their motivation is also derived from their financial independence. Peacey (2009) explains that the huge number of responsibilities makes single parents lose their passion for work, which can be brought back if a part of their responsibilities is shared. Since the wage rate and promotion prospects are higher with better educational qualifications, Single parents also aspire to receive higher education but cannot do so because of their personal and professional commitments (Gingerbread, 2012). Creating such an opportunity for these workers may boost up their motivational level to a great extent.Recommended Motivational Tools
In order to ensure that single parents working full-time are motivated at work, the HR department needs to devise policies which help them in their work-life balance (Harkness and Skipp, 2013). Sims et al. (2010) suggest the introduction of a financial support system that will work well to motivate single parents, which may include benefits schemes such as in-work credit and emergency discretion fund. On the basis of these policies, employees will be relieved from the stress they would have due to their financial problems, and would be able to contribute better in terms of job performance. Since single parents are mostly anxious about a childcare center which is affordable and accessible, organisations should offer this service within their premises (Gingerbread, 2012) along with separate breastfeeding rooms (Kosmala-Anderson and Wallace, 2006), which would in turn make the employees feel motivated, thus resulting in higher productivity. Managers should also make it a point to place them in work teams with people having similar interests as them. Because of the two-fold responsibility of single parents, an ideal strategy would be to provide them with flexibility in choosing their work hours as per their convenience (Gingerbread, 2012). The training personnel in HR department may also identify the training needs required for specific staff and may suggest to grant them some time off and send them for company-sponsored training sessions (Summers and Ford, 2012); this will help to boost up the confidence and motivation of single parents, and their new skills will also prove to be beneficial for the organisation.Motivating Older Workers
Work-Related Characteristics of Older Workers
Understanding older workers who have passed the state retirement age is a difficult task and an even complex task is to motivate them, as there are contradictory opinions about their job characteristics. Some researchers found a negative relationship between age and job performance, stating that older employees are less productive and do not show any motivation to learn new skills (Park and Gutchess, 2000). On the other hand, another research suggests that older workers are characterised by positives work traits, which include reliability, devotion and cooperation (Gonyea, 2013).Factors Influencing Motivation
The research conducted by Sinclair et al. (2005) depicts that strong organisational commitment among employees helps them deal well with difficult situations at work, and that older workers with higher levels of commitment towards the organisation perform better than or equal to young employees. Kanfer and Ackermann (2004) found that older workers are greatly motivated if they have a job security along with physical security, as they would not like to be financially dependent on anyone at an old age. Furthermore, older workers remain active and motivated to work as long as they enjoy their work, are satisfied with the usage of skills for performing the tasks, feel accomplished by performing their job, and get a chance of involving into creative work (Lord, 2004).Recommended Motivational Tools
With the increasing age of employees, work becomes boring for them, which mostly includes routine tasks; in such a situation, the best motivational tool is involving them in the work that interests them (Leberecht, 2015). The HR should introduce a discrimination-free policy, whereby older workers are given an equal opportunity for training and development which will help them enhance their competencies and learn new skills (Iun and Huang, 2007). Another way to increase their motivation could be to improve their prospects for promotion (Bal, Kooij and Rousseau, 2015). If older workers are not healthy enough to perform all their job roles on their own, their expertise and skills may be used by the organisation to gain optimum benefit, whereby they can be asked to train junior employees (Iun and Huang, 2007). This will make them feel valued and will boost up their morale, and will also be helpful for the organisation as younger workers would then be able to share their workload (Kooij et al., 2008). Even within the same age group, some old workers may be seeking to fulfil the needs in the first two levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1943), while others may be looking forward to have their higher level needs fulfilled (Shea and Haasen, 2006). In that case, respect is one thing which will motivate older workers belonging to either of these groups (Bal, Kooij and Rousseau, 2015). Even if these workers are not at the highest level of hierarchy in their department, they must be treated with due respect pertinent to their age, which will motivate them to a great extent. Several studies portray the health issues older workers may face due to which they are discriminated against (Jones, et al., 2011), however little research has been done to devise a solution to this problem. The easiest of all could be to introduce specialised health insurance programs for older workers which covers the general health problems they may face (Tishman, Looy and Bruyere, 2012).Conclusion
Motivating employees has become challenging since the time the expectations and needs to employees have started changing. Just like other functions in the organisations, this function also needs to undergo continuous improvement, as what motivates one group of employees, may not be a strong motivator for another group. Among graduate trainees, the intrinsic motivation can brought by a thorough orientation session and assigning mentors, which will facilitate their ease of integration into the organisation. Single parents may be very well committed to the organisation if they are provided adequate financial support, flexibility in working hours and childcare facilities at work, whereas the motivation level of older workers may be improved by increasing their prospects for promotion and training, and giving them an opportunity to mentor others to make them feel valued. An organisation may not be able to go far if its workforce is not motivated; managers should therefore use such tools as a means of retaining their valued employees.References
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Different Models of Change Management
Introduction
This paper provides a critical discussion of the different models of change management with a focus on the models proposed by Kurt Lewin (1958), John Kotter (1995) and the McKinsey 7S model (1982) developed by Tom Peters and Robert Waterman.
Understanding Change
Given the wide diversity in the nature and type of change experienced by individuals and organisations, no single definition of change exists. However, there is a general consensus that change is a constant feature of organisational life (Bamford and Daniel, 2005), and that it is constantly increasing in terms of its frequency, magnitude and unpredictability (Burnes, 2009). Jones (2007) defined organisational change as the way in which organisations move from one state to another to increase their effectiveness, and Greenan (2003) stated that it involves a re-distribution of power, information and skills. Similarly, Saif et al (2013) assert that effective change management is essential for organisational development and ultimately survival, and yet studies have shown that around 60% of change initiatives fail (CIPD, 2015) Signicant work has been done to characterise the nature of change, the forces that drive it and the processes through which it can be achieved, and this has resulted in a number of models and theories that claim to capture change (Saif et al, 2013). All approaches, however, are dependent to some extent on the wider strategic and environmental context in which an organisation operates. According to Pettigrew et al (1992) this context is the 'why and when' of change and takes account of the external context such as the current political, economic and social environment, and also the internal contextual factors such as organisational culture, structure and capabilities.
Lewin's 3 Step Change Model
One of the most widely recognised of these change models was provided by Kurt Lewin (1958) who became the pioneer of planned change with the introduction of his "three-step change model" in the 1950s. The steps in this model include: 'unfreezing'- where the current equilibrium is destabilised to allow any old behaviours to be discarded and the desired new behaviours to be adopted; 'moving' - where individuals are supported to move from less acceptable to more acceptable behaviours through different change initiatives; and 're-freezing' - where the new behaviours become embedded in every-day practice to allow stability at a new equilibrium as shown in Figure 1: Figure 1 Lewin's 3-Step Change Model Source: Carpenter, Bauer and Erdogen, 2009 According to Cameron and Green (2009), Lewin's model provides a useful tool for those considering organisational change, particularly when used in conjunction with his force field analysis technique which provides a focus for management teams to debate the resisting and driving forces for change. They claim that through using this model, a team can quickly move on to identifying the next steps in the change process. However, Lewin's model has attracted major criticism in that it assumes that organisations operate within a stable environment, it is a 'top-down' approach, and fails to give consideration to issues around organisational power and politics (Burnes, 2004). In addition, its linear approach has been found to be too inflexible in certain scenarios such as in times of instability and uncertainty in the external and internal environment (Bamford and Forrester, 2003). In addition, it has been claimed that such a model is only relevant to incremental and isolated change projects which therefore makes it unable to tackle transformational change (Dawson, 1994).
Kotter's 8 Step Model
Lewin's model has been adapted and re-created in many different forms (McWhinney, 1992). In particular, the work of John Kotter (1995) can easily be mapped against Lewin's model (Higgs and Rowand, 2005), but instead provides a more practical eight-step approach to change management (Todnem By, 2005). Kotter initially developed his change model by observing for-profit businesses, but it is claimed that it has applicability to public and third sector organisations also (Nitta et al, 2009). Kotter's model was based upon his observations of the main mistakes made in organisations which were seeking to transform themselves and he proposed eight key steps to success (see Figure 2): Figure 2 Kotter's 8 Step Model Source: Adapted from: Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2009 Within Kotter's model, the different steps are:
- Step 1: Increase Urgency: according to Bond (2007) this first step is important in generating the 'activation energy' to start the process of change. External pressures can help to achieve this sense of urgency such as legislative forces or threat of new competition. Kotter (1998) claimed that failure to adequately complete this step is one of the most frequent causes of failure overall.
- Step 2: Build the Guiding Team: with the sufficient power and influence to lead the change (Appelbaum et al, 2012).
- Step 3: Get the Right Vision: that clearly articulates what the change is, why it is needed and how it will be achieved.
- Step 4: Communicate Buy In: by telling all key stakeholders in a range of different ways the what, why and how of the change, so that they understand and support the change initiative.
- Step 5: Empower Action: by facilitating individuals to support the change. Successful change usually requires sufficient resources to support and 'empower' the process (Fernandez and Rainey, 2006).
- Step 6: Create Short Term Wins: and giving recognition for the work done. Short-term wins provide visible evidence that the change is worth it and justified. Acknowledging these successes builds morale and momentum whilst also gaining crucial buy-in (Gupta, 2011).
- Step 7: Don't Let Up: consolidate the gains achieved and create further momentum by developing people as change agents (Appelbaum et al, 2012).
- Step 8: Make it Stick: and anchor the change within the culture of the organisation. According to Fernandez and Rainey (2006), for change to be enduring, members of the organisation must incorporate the new practices into their daily routine.
Kotter's model is generally considered to provide a practical and logical approach to managing change, and has been found to have a high level of appeal amongst managers with it still being used extensively today (Cameron and Green, 2009). However, despite this it has been criticised for a number of reasons. One of the key criticisms is that there is a lack of 'follow through' and that it 'peaks too early' (Cameron and Green, 2004). Other critics suggest that this approach is based on an often unfounded assumption that individuals will resist change (Kelman, 2005), and that where resistance does occur, there is insufficient explanation of the reasons why (King and Anderson, 2002). In addition, Sidorko (2008) argues that Kotter makes no concessions to the fact that his model is ordered sequentially and that all steps must be followed. He claims that from his study of organisational change and the use of the model, there is often a need to build multiple guiding coalitions on multiple occasions which is something that Kotter fails to acknowledge. Both Lewin's and Kotter's models focus specifically on planned change and it is this factor that is the target of most criticism. It is claimed that their models are inadequate in a range of circumstances, particularly where the given change is just one of a multiplicity of changes happening within the organisation (Carnall, 2007). Similarly, other critics argue that change cannot be viewed as a linear sequence which can be applied to processes that are in reality 'messy and untidy' (Buchanan and Storey, 1997).
McKinsey 7S
The McKinsey 7S Model was developed in the early 1980s by Tom Peters and Robert Waterman. It is differentiated from other change theories as instead of proposing steps that must be taken in a particular order, the framework looks at the separate elements and how well they work and interact with each other). The 7S in the model describes the seven variables, termed 'levers' which form the framework (Peters and Waterman, 1982), as shown in Figure 3: Figure 3 The McKinsey 7S Model Source: Jurevicius, 2013 In Figure 3, it can be seen that the seven 'S' variables include:
- Strategy: which is the plan that is formulated to sustain competitive advantage
- Structure: which is the way the organisation is structured and its reporting mechanisms
- Systems: are the daily activities employees undertake to get the job done
- Shared Values: are the organisation's core values that are demonstrated in the corporate culture
- Style: refers to the leadership style adopted
- Staff: are the employees
- Skills: the skills and competencies of the individual employees.
'Shared Values' are located in the centre of the model, to highlight that these are central to the development of all the other critical components, and the seven interdependent factors which are categorised as either 'hard' or 'soft' elements. The hard elements are easier to identify and can be directly influenced including strategy, structure and systems. The soft elements are much less tangible and are more influenced by organisational culture. One of the benefits of the model is that is can be used to understand how the different organisational elements are interconnected and so how a change in one area can impact on the others. To be effective, an organisation must have a high degree of internal alignment amongst all of the seven Ss - each must be consistent with and reinforce the others (Saif et al, 2013). In addition, according to Rasiel and Friga (2002), the benefits of the McKinsey 7S model include the fact that it provides a diagnostic tool for managers to identify areas that are ineffective and combines the rational and hard elements of organisations alongside the softer, more emotional elements. Criticisms of the McKinsey 7S model, however, claim that it does not offer any guidance on how to proceed once any areas of non-alignment have been identified (Grant, 2008). In addition, Bhatti (2011) argues that the model fails to take account of the importance of resources. Without additional resources such as finance, information, technology, and the time, any change initiative cannot be effectively implemented (Higgins, 2005).
Discussion
According to Sidorko (2008) all of these change models have a role to play in supporting organisational change, but advises that they must be implemented cautiously and complemented with effective leadership. He claims that without such leadership, the models are merely a strict prescription for change that may not fit the organisation's needs and which may result in more harm than good. He claims that instead of applying such change models prescriptively, they should instead be used selectively and adaptively to accommodate the culture and environment of the organisation. This view is supported by Graetz and Smith (2010) who claim that in practice, it may be useful to account for contextual variables and adapt chosen change models accordingly. MacBryde et al (2014) claim that change models such as those examined in this paper, are too abstract for practical application, and are generalised to the extent where they are at risk of missing the actual detail of what is happening. A further criticism of change management models in general, is that there is a lack of evaluation built into the process and yet critics claim that such evaluation is key to successful and sustainable change (Moran and Brightman, 2000).
Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper has provided a critical discussion of some of the most commonly cited change management models. It is evident that all three have been considered to have some practical benefit in terms of aiding the process of change in organisations and our understanding of it, and across all three models, it is clear that there is a high level of commonality amongst them. However they have all been subjected to criticism due to their abstract nature. It has been argued that they oversimplify the process of change, lack evaluation, and do not take sufficient account of the often turbulent business context and environment in which organisational change occurs. In addition, it is clear that no matter how robust the change model, it will be ineffectual unless complemented by effective leadership. It has been proposed that given this, change models such as those provided by Lewin, Kotter and the McKinsey 7S, should be used as a guide rather than a panacea, and applied flexibly to best match the culture and environment of the organisation and the nature of the change itself.
References
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Midlothian Housing Accommodation
Chapter 4.0 – Midlothian A Case Study
Having looked at the development of partnering philosophies, potential benefits, challenges, and overall aims of partnering in Chapter 2.0, this chapter will focus on the actual implementation of partnering arrangements in the UK public sector. It does this by describing the approach and the process undertaken by Midlothian Council in setting up the current New Housing Construction Partnership (MNHCP). It goes on to explain how Midlothian have addressed Rethinking Construction challenge and implemented partnering through the signing up to the framework agreement.
4.1 Introduction
As is common with most local Authorities within the United Kingdom, Midlothian Council had not constructed its own housing for over 40 years. Housing stock has been running low within Midlothian due to the amount of properties purchased by the tenants under the controversial Right to Buy scheme, brought in by the then Conservative Government in 1979. Many other authorities within Scotland have suspended their right to buy option. The homelessness act 2003 put even greater pressure on Midlothian to supply accommodation for those falling under this category. In 2004 Midlothian spent A£1.2 million on bed and breakfast accommodation and it was recognised that this would be unsustainable over the coming years and that some other form of action would have to be taken. That action came in the form of a proposal to construct 1000 new houses across 30 sites within the Midlothian area. The framework was agreed in November 2006 with a total planned capital spend of A£105 million over 5 years from 2006-2011. The project was let under a GC/Works 5 form of contract, based on a negotiated Target cost with a risk/reward element defects and accidents on site. Benefits for Midlothian Council include maximising construction spend, modernising the authority's procurement process and delivering best value from improved predictability. The longer-term aims of the relationship included eliminating duplication, improving communications and integration between the Council and its partners and promoting continuous improvement.
4.2 The Project Specific Aims
The Project aims are to:
- Provide 1,000 new social housing units in 5 years;
- Use best practice/principals;
- Provide a property of good quality built to last;
- Avoid conflict and additional cost's;
- Have flexible housing to cater for Housing for Varying Needs;
- Have sustainable housing to meet Agenda 21 targets;
- Ensure that buildings constructed require only low-level maintenance throughout their lifetime;
- Ensure these aims and goals are to be secured by Design.
4.3 The Partnering Decision
This section focuses on how the decision was made by Midlothian to go down the partnering route and the stages covered to put the partnering team in place. As stated previously Midlothian had not undertaken such a large project for over 40 years and valuable experience in how to handle this size of contract had been lost due to local authority job cuts. Most of the construction section had been decimated and contained very little experience of contracts of such size and complexity. Consultants were brought in to give advice and it was established in these early meetings that a partnering arrangement would fill all the requirements that Midlothian were looking for. At the time of this decision the Facilities and Construction Manager (F&C M) was aware that the traditional approach to construction did not meet the requirements, along with his knowledge of rethinking construction (Construction Task Force, 1998). Feeling that there was strong backing from central government decided that partnering was the way forward. This knowledge that central government was committed to reform in the construction industry was vital as it gave Midlothian Council the confidence to move ahead with partnering. Furthermore partnering offered the chance for the council to show best value in carrying it out. A strategy report was then sent to council cabinet for approval. The report outlined the benefits to the cabinet in the use of a partnering agreement through its auditability and also confirmed that it could meet the requirement of best practice. This report acted as the mechanism for Midlothian to allow partnering to proceed. According to prescriptive texts on partnering, for the client to ensure that all relevant parties in the organisation are informed about partnering (Loraine and Williams, 2000). These requirements were largely fulfilled in the case of the Council.
4.4 The Partnering Process
The partnering agreement would be based on the concept of the 'Seven Pillars of Partnering' see Chapter 2.0 page
- Membership - Choosing the Partners
Following the decision to partner on a particular project or a contract and having completed the process of inculcating its values within the client organisation, the next step is to select the partners (European Construction Institute, Partnering in the Public Sector, 1997). The process was a multi-stage one and very intensive, consisting of preliminary and more detailed questionnaires, presentations, interviews and site visits and the sample pricing of two exemplar sites. In assessing the bids, the council used geared weighting of multiple criteria, which included not only conventional factors (such as commercial stability and technical skills), but also others, such as 'deep' understanding of partnering. At the end of this process it led to the selection of two contractors and five consultants. The consultants that were involved in the initial consultation on partnering were not among the five chosen. The partners were informed of their success in August 2006.
- Integration- Team Formation
The remainder of the "seven pillars of partnering" were put into action once the strategy and financing of the project had been passed by the council cabinet. Partnering depends on co-operation which in turn depends on trust. The integration pillar deals with the need to develop co-operative behaviour at all levels. This was done through a serious of workshops. The purpose of the workshops was for the project team to:
- Get to know each other
- Create a Partnering Charter for the project
- Develop an Issue Resolution Process
- Develop a Joint Evaluation Process
The first workshop took place over 14/15 November 2006 and was attended by 22 participants of the partnering organisations. This workshop was designed to develop the partnering agreement. This was achieved by a discussion to identify the issues that would affect the way the partners work together. During each workshop the proceedings were fully documented and these provide a basis for further development of an action plan agreed by the parties. In addition to the conduct of the workshop appropriate pre and post workshop advice is provided on the development and maintenance of the partnering agreement.
4.4.3 Benchmarks : Setting Standards
Once the partners had been selected it was, of course, necessary to operationalise partnering by agreeing objectives, structures, performance monitoring, conflict resolution and how information would be communicated (Lorraine and Williams, 2000). Essentially the partners had to agree mechanisms to facilitate partnering; changing it from an idea to a reality. From its inception, the MNHCP has been committed to rigorous performance measurement. It was crucial that MNHCP could see how it was performing and compare results against national construction industry standards, particularly with regard to cost, time, health & safety, defects and sustainability. A second workshop was held on the 5/6th of December 2006. This workshop was designed to engender a sense of ownership of the agreement by getting those present to decide what factors to focus on and measure in the Partnership and establish agreed expectations and to generate performance indicators. The Project Performance Indicators (summarised below) designed for the project to provide feedback on how the partnership is performing as well as an assessment of how each contractor and consultant are meeting the required standards across a range of criteria.
The KPI's
- Programme (Management of Time)
- Tenant Satisfaction
- Public Relations (No of complaints)
- Health & Safety (Accidents & Safety Notices)
- Finance (Cost Saving & Cash Flow)
- Payments (from client-constructors-sub-contractors/sub-consultants)
- Adherence to Procedures
- Errors (Design & Construction Errors)
- Defects (Internal & External)
- Staff (Continuity & Training)
- Environmental (Material & Waste)
- Project Processes : The Issue Resolution Protocol (IRP)
The partnering workshop is the vehicle used to create the partnering charter for the project which comprises the mission statement and performance objectives; issue resolution and evaluation process as well as problem management techniques are subsequently developed (European Construction Institute, 1997). In line with the overall procurement philosophy, the Council have developed a protocol based on best practice. The protocol does not seek to give advantage to the Council or any other party. Under the IRP issues would be resolved at the "lowest level" possible. Conflict resolution was an area where the workshops were apparently weaker in comparison to suggested best practice. Such practice guides contain information about the timescale which each level has to solve a dispute before it moves to a higher level for consideration. (Loraine and Williams, 2000). The dispute resolution procedure of the MNHCP shown in Figure 6 below is less explicit than those described in best practice guides. For example there exist no timescales to determine how long each organisational level has to resolve a dispute before it must move up the next level. This contrasts sharply with suggested practice. Of course so far there have been no disputes that have not been settled and so the procedures shown above seems to be perfectly adequate. However, a more detailed procedure would allow parties to know where they stand and timescales involved so that expectations are not unrealistic. This flow chart is an indicative representation of the process. The shaded elements represent the desired process. Figure 4.2 : Midlothian Partneship Issue Resolution Protocol (IRP) (Source : Midlothian Construction Services, March 2006)
- Feedback and Communication
Communication and feedback are the great drivers of the MNHCP. A monthly project progress team meeting is one of the partnering tools used for feedback. The progress meeting provides the team an opportunity to bring up issues, concerns, and ideas on a regular basis. Project meetings can help everyone working on the job understand the schedule, co-ordinate work, and to identify and resolve issues by bringing everyone together involved in one place, at the same time, to discuss the status of the project and to plan ahead. Good communications and planning are critical to a successful project. Good communication also means that there are no surprises on the project. It means that one day you won't open a letter to find that someone is upset about something that you have never heard of before. The project team committed to not writing letters without talking to each other first. Talking first gives everyone an opportunity to make sure they understand the issues(s) and to try to work things out before positions are put in writing. The council also committed to review achievements regularly, to ensure efficient and effective working. One innovation has been the appointment of a Project Co-ordinator. His role includes a number of functions designed to ensure the effective functioning of the Partnership. This post reflects suggested partnering practice. (Other key individuals within a partnering arrangement are "The Partnering Champions". These are senior individuals in the organisations concerned and they play a "central role" in ensuring the viability of partnering, (Bennett and Jayes, 1995). For this role indicates a commitment to partnering and, as noted, commitment of individuals is vital for successful partnering. The functions of this role are vital in allowing the agreement to function. The Council Champion roles include:
- Agreeing the Charter
- Agreeing the targets
- Agreeing the allocation of works under the agreement
- Establish and maintain monitoring systems to evaluate partnership performance
- Monitor targets regularly
- Liaise with all parties involved to ensure adherence to the Partnership
- Promote innovation within the partnership
- Discussion : Midlothian Approach Vs Best Practice
The selection process and the development of the Midlothian Housing Construction Partnership in the workshops discussed above, was essentially very successful. The selection process, involving two questionnaires and an interview/presentation. It was a rigorous selection process that achieved its aim of selecting effective partners. This validates the approaches followed as effective tools to help implement partnering. Thus this validates the texts on the best practice which promotes such approaches. The selection process also required commitment from constructors. For example all the successful (CT) set up a special panel to deal with the questionnaire and interview. Such commitment here indicates a commitment to partnering generally. Having noted this however it should be mentioned that past experience was a factor in these Construction team (CT) knowledge of what would be required of them. This knowledge gave them an understanding of what the client would require of them. This experience was important, not because it directly resulted in these companies being selected as partners, but because they could draw on the past experiences to convince Midlothian of their competence in the selection process, which fits well with ideology of partnering. The Central function of the interview/presentations allowed the council to establish the (CT) who felt they could work with effectively on a personal level. The fact that these contractors/consultants had been short listed proved that, generally, they were capable (CT). Indeed all of those who made presentations were very competent and the race was a close one. It can also be argued that the diversity of the selection panel was actually positive. Had the panel comprised compromised technically qualified individuals they would have been more likely to have focused on technical issues that, at this point, were no longer relevant. The primary qualification questionnaire had already ensured those short list were competent. At this stage attitudes were important and the selection panel were more than competent to judge on these. The workshops ought to be deemed successful as they achieved all the aims they are supposed to according to writers on the subject. In particular it felt the workshops were well organised, "spread the team working message very well". Furthermore the initial workshops were successful in that they promoted the aims of Midlothian Council. To allow the partnering agreement to operate, a series of project workshops followed. They generated a sense of ownership, a range of issues to focus on and performance indicators to measure and illustrate Best value. These project workshops should be regarded as a positive aspect of the partnering process to the extent that they allowed those involved to have a direct input into performance measurement. The dispute resolution procedure of the MNHCP is less explicit than those described in best practice guides. For example there exist no timescales to determine how long each organisational level has to resolve a dispute before it must move up to the next level. A more detailed guide, perhaps including timescales and who to contact would make the situation clearer. To date he MNHCP approach has worked well. During the course of carrying out this research, for this project, no major unresolved disputes came to light. Time will tell whether the MNHCP approach to conflict resolution will prove as, if not more, effective than suggested best practice.
- Summary
This study describes the establishment of the MNHCP which, generally, was through and followed current perceptions of how to set up partnering, with only a limited number of specific deviations. These appear to have had a significant negative impact on the overall process. The problems and issues noted, whilst important, should not deflect from the overall view that the establishment of the MNHCP was professionally and successfully carried out.
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HR’s Impact on Long Term Environmental Sustainability
Introduction
This essay focuses on the role of human resources (HR) in achieving environmental sustainability. It starts by very briefly explaining what environmental sustainability is, and why it is so important for individuals and organisations to contribute to achieving goals and targets related to sustainability. It next briefly explains what is meant by HR. Next it considers the ways in which HR managers are likely to be involved in supporting their organisations to reach sustainability targets. A focus on one organisation then allows some ideas to be developed that can form the basis of recommendations for improvement of environmental sustainability key to HR. Environmental sustainability is a component of the sustainable development concept. This concept is described as development “that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987:43). Essentially, it argues that to sustain life - both human and animal - the provision of clean water and air, and energy obtained from renewable resources are vital (Sutton, 2004). Human Resource departments might not seem the natural home of a focus on environmental sustainability, as often the burden of responsibility in an organisation is placed on an operations manager. However, there is definitely a role to play for human resources. In researching this issue, care must be taken to include terms that encompass the HR function - these can include Human Resource Management (HRM), Employment Services (ES), Human Capital, Personnel and others (Abusafia, 2012).
HR Management Support for the Drive Towards Environmental Sustainability
There is a range of HR activities that directly contribute to the environmental sustainability of an organisation. These often revolve around the development of 'green' jobs - and the infrastructure, training, personal development planning, performance management, communication, attitude monitoring and other aspects that go along with the creation of new posts, or new components of existing posts (Jackson, 2012). Liebowitz (2010) argues that the role of HR is more fundamental and deep seated than developing processes - he suggests that the HR department has a very significant role to play in the creation of a company's sustainability culture, as it is professionally trained to change the attitudes and behaviours of employees, from senior executives to the most junior of staff (Liebowitz, 2010). Liebowitz also argues that HR managers are far removed from the old traditional personnel manager. Today, HR staff are likely to know much more about the business, and they use a human capital management approach to underpin the development of staff to achieve environmental objectives (Lebowitz, 2010). Wilkins (2014) identifies the skill to motivate and encourage employees to become engaged with sustainability programmes within an organisation as key to their success (Wilkins, 2014). In fact, Wilkins argues that to achieve success, three key components are necessary - communication, education and motivation. Communication includes good environmental practice for employees (reducing energy use), and highlighting individual and organisational environmental achievements (Wilkins, 2014). Education can be used to provide employees with practical information about integrating environmental objectives into their daily work, for example, engaging in recycling activities; this can also improve productivity as all staff are working towards a common purpose (Wilkins, 2014). Motivation in the form of an environmentally focussed rewards programme can ensure that employees remain committed, and can actually help retention of valuable staff (Wilkins, 2014). Cohen et al (2012) suggest that one influencing factor on the role HR plays in supporting environmental sustainability, will be the motivations behind the organisation's move towards more sustainable operations and strategies. They argue that the route taken may make the HR contribution easier or more difficult. They identify a values-based route, a strategic route and a defensive route. The first is associated mostly with the personal principles of the founders of small businesses - some of which may have become much larger (Cohen et al, 2012). The second is those businesses that identify opportunities in redesigning products or services to expand into markets where environmental characteristics are valued (Cohen et al, 2012). Lastly, the defensive route occurs when companies come under pressure to change their approach, perhaps because of a pollution incident (Cohen et al, 2012). It is clear that each of these routes will have a different impact on the work of the HR manager: where the business chooses to commit to environmental objectives, there is likely to be a positive culture, whilst companies forced into accepting change in environmental attitudes are likely to generate at least some resistance (Harmon et al, 2010). What the above discussion shows is that there is motivation for HR managers and departments to become involved in supporting a move towards environmental sustainability in their organisation. There are a number of HR tools that can be used to embed such sustainability objectives into an organisation. There are four main areas where such tools may be deployed: employee attraction and selection; employee training, development and compensation; creating a sustainable organisational climate; and, management support and communication (Cohen et al, 2012). Having a good environmental profile has been found to attract high quality employees (Government of Canada, n.d.), and to retain these employees for longer than average retention periods (Ernst & Young, 2013), and the HR department can therefore use a commitment to environmental sustainability in their job advertising, ensuring that they have an edge over their competitors (Ernst & Young, 2013). To maintain and energise staff to commit to environmental processes, i.e. to motivate employees (Human Resource Excellence, 2012) it is necessary to provide targeted training, for example, in life cycle analysis to reduce inefficiency and waste, and to include formal evaluations of such commitment i.e. targets to be achieved in job plans (Manufacturing Skills Australia, 2015). Changing an organisation's culture is often the most challenging, but also the most necessary approach. While there may be commitment at the senior management level, this is likely to decline the further down the organisational hierarchy you go (Petrini and Pozzebon, 2010). This is especially true in traditional industries, such as construction, where male dominated heavy labour has little cultural awareness of environmental issues (Built Environment Sustainability Training, 2014). Management support through communication that relates to employees lives can indicate an overall organisational commitment to environmental sustainability, and can encourage people to integrate environmental principles throughout their daily lives (Fleischer, 2009). HR can assist in all of these areas through training, communication, incentivisation, PDP and other such tools. The following section provides some recommendations for such actions in one organisation.
Recommendations for Improving Environmental Sustainability Through HR
The organisation chosen for the case study is a construction company, McGregor Construction, which is located in the Scottish Highlands. This company was formed in 1977, but has previous history going back 132 years (McGregor Construction n.d.). Annual turnover is around A£9.5 million, and the company covers the construction spectrum, including building projects for hospitals, sports stadiums, shopping centres, council housing, and private housing (McGregor Construction, n.d.). Work includes both new build and repairs to existing properties, some of these being very old and architecturally important. It has 68 employees, many of whom have been with the company for a long time (Endole, 2015). . The employee profile is important in that it is largely male (80%), and largely older age groups, with 63% in the 40 - 56 years age bracket, and 7% in the 57 - 70, 5% in the 70+, while 15% is in the 25 - 39 years and 10% in the 18 - 24 bracket. Many of the older employees are highly skilled, not only in modern building techniques but in traditional craft based skills building techniques. The company has come under increasing pressure to develop a strategic and operational approach to environmental management. This pressure has arisen partly from the industry itself, as the construction sector has made substantial efforts to integrate sustainability objectives into the activities and functions of the industry (European Commission, 2012). It has also arisen from pressure through the supply chain - as McGregor is a supplier of services to a number of large customers, who have a commitment to greening their supply chains. Finally, the company is aware that they are not as efficient as they could be in managing their energy use and waste, and are seeking to improve these aspects to save money. The five main environmental objectives the company has identified are: to reduce waste throughout the company by 40% in the next year, to reduce fuel use and on site energy used combined by 40% in the next year, to increase the use of recycled materials by 10%, and to support community environmental objectives, and to reduce on site noise pollution, again all in the next financial year. There are a number of recommendations that can be made to support the HR manager - who is assisted by one member of staff for administrative purposes - in achieving these objectives. Using the four main areas of HR related improvement identified by Cohen et al (2012), a range of specific actions may be taken. First, employee attraction and selection. One HR tool is to integrate the selection of new employees with the long term environmental strategy of the company - so for all future employees it is recommended that an environmental component is built into job plans or descriptions. Specifically, waste management and energy use reduction should be a target tasked for all new employees. This should be followed up by the inclusion of environmental stewardship questions as part of the interview process; candidates could even be asked to give a very short presentation on the importance of environmental management in the construction industry. By using these tools, it not only signals to prospective employees that the company is seriously committed to environmental improvement, and that if they are employed they will be expected to contribute. It may also attract individuals who might otherwise have ignored a small company in favour of finding a large one with an established sustainability strategy. Second, employee training, development and compensation. Here HR can have a substantial input. Environmental training programmes can be devised and be mandatory for all staff (CIPD, 2015), with specific focus for some staff on certain issues. For example, for people labouring or working actually in building processes, a focus on the handling of materials and reduction of waste would be a sensible inclusion. Training for all staff on energy conservation i.e. switching off machinery, lights and so on when not required, would be an easy initial approach. Training programmes should be aligned with the company's environmental objectives, so that the training can directly feed into the achievement of the objectives. Compensation is a useful approach, and can be operationalised by HR in a number of ways. For example, Intel uses an Environmental Excellence award programme, which incentivises environmental behaviour through peer review of nominations for environmental innovation (Patton, 2013). One outcome was the reduction of energy consumption of chillers, boiler plants and vacuum pumps that in just one factory is estimated to save $38 million (Patton, 2013). On a much smaller scale, such a programme could be supported and instigated in McGregor's - with innovations in material recycling, energy use reduction, fuel saving, building technologies and techniques and carbon reduction as expected outcomes. Third is the creation of a sustainable organisational climate. Here HR can contribute by using sustainability oriented entry, performance and exit practices (Verburg and Den Hartog, 2006), as long as senior management recognises the importance of integrating HR into the overall company sustainability strategy (Putter, 2010). In achieving a sustainability oriented climate, HR can be especially useful in supporting the work of line managers in recruiting more employees, managing their environmental performance, and ensuring that when they leave they do so with substantial environmental awareness, and respect for what the company have done. Indeed, if HR integrates environmental issues across the whole company through workforce planning then this directly feeds into the organisational climate (Petrini and Pozzebon, 2010) The final area of recommendations is for management support and communication. It is vital that the company directors and senior managers demonstrate absolute commitment to environmental sustainability - and they should lead by example. An employee of the month scheme could be instituted - with public recognition of an individual's environmental achievements being a well recognised effective approach (Silverman, 2004). Employees seeing that senior managers are rewarding such behaviours are likely to engage with further activities when they are introduced by HR through the tools previously described.
Conclusions
It is clear the HR has a substantial role to play in the integration of environmental sustainability in any organisation - and has an increasing range of tools and systems that can be used to achieve this.
References
Abusafia, A. (2012). Rebranding of the Human Resources Department. Available at: https://hr-management.hr.toolbox.com/groups/strategy-administration/management-staff/rebranding-of-the-human-resources-department-4671333 Built Environment Sustainability Training. (2014).Summary Skills Needs Analysis for Waste in Construction. Cardiff: Built Environment Sustainability Training. CIPD. (2015). Environmental and Sustainability Policy. Available at: https://www.cipd.co.uk/cipd-hr-profession/about-us/environmental-sustainability-policy.aspx Cohen, E., Taylor, S., and Muller-Camen, M. (2012). HRM's Role in Corporate Social and Environmental Responsibility. Alexandria VA: SHRM Foundation. Endole. (2015). McGregor Construction (Highlands) Limited. Available at: https://www.endole.co.uk/company/SC061518/mcgregor-construction-highlands-limited Ernst & Young. (2013). Role of HR in Driving Sustainable Business Practices. Kolkata India: Ernst & Young. European Commission. (2012). COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL Strategy for the sustainable competitiveness of the construction sector and its enterprises /* COM/2012/0433 final. Brussels: European Commission. Fleischer, D. (2009). Three Tips for Engaging Employees in Sustainability. Available at: https://www.triplepundit.com/2009/09/employee-engagement-three-tips-for-engaging-employees-in-sustainability/ Government of Canada. (n.d.). SME Sustainability Roadmap. Available at: https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/csr-rse.nsf/eng/rs00591.html Harmon, J., Fairfield, K. D., and Wirtenberg, J. (2010). Missing an Opportunity: HR Leadership in Sustainability. People and Strategy, 33(1), pp. 16-21. Human Resource Excellence. (n.d.). Importance of Human Resource Management. Available at: https://www.humanresourceexcellence.com/importance-of-human-resource-management/ Jackson, S.E. (2012). The Role of Human Resource Management in Achieving Environmental Sustainability. In: S.E. Jackson,. D.S. Ones., and S. Dlichert. (eds.) (2012). Managing Human Resources for Environmental Sustainability. San Francisco CA: Jossey Bass. Liebowitz, J. (2010). The Role of HR in Achieving a Sustainability Culture. Journal of Sustainable Development, 3 (4), pp. 50 - 57. Manufacturing Skills Australia. (2015). Planning and Procedures. Available at: https://sustainabilityskills.net.au/what-is-sustainability/sustainability-practice/strategy-and-management/planning-and-procedures/ McGregor Construction. (n.d.) The Company. Available at: https://www.mcgregors.net/index.php Patton, C. (2013). Rewarding Best Behaviours. Human Resource Executive [online] 09 December. Available at: https://www.hreonline.com/HRE/view/story.jhtml?id=534356443 Petrini, M., and Pozzebon, M. (2010). Integrating Sustainability Into Business Practices: Learning from Brazilian Firms. Brazilian Administration Review, 7 (4), pp. 362 - 378. Putter, L. (2010). Organizational Climate and Performance. Delft: Delft University of Technology. Silverman, D. (2004). Non-Financial Recognition: The Most Effective of Rewards? Brighton: Institute for Employment Studies. Sutton, P. (2004). A Perspective on Environmental Sustainability? Fairfield, Victoria: Green Innovations. Verburg, R.M., and Den Hartog, D.N. (2006). Human Resource Management for Advanced Technology. In R.M. Verburg., R.J. Ortt., and W.M. Dicke,W.M. (Eds.) (2006). Managing Technology and Innovation: An Introduction. London: Routledge. Wilkins, S. (2014). How HR Can Drive Sustainability. HR [online] 30 April. Available at: https://www.hrmagazine.co.uk/article-details/how-hr-can-drive-sustainability World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
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What was the Significance of the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) for the Relations between States
What was the significance of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) for the relations between States? To what extent is Modern diplomacy Renaissance diplomacy in disguise?
The conflicts known as the Thirty Years' War fundamentally altered the balance of power in Europe. Indeed, it could certainly be argued that modern diplomacy is 'Renaissance diplomacy in disguise', largely as a result of this. The conflict forced into being allegiances and alliances that can still be seen today and which in part shaped subsequent conflicts within European nation states. Initially, the Thirty Years' War was a religious conflict, though resulting from a 'complex sequence of events' , but it quickly escalated into a more comprehensive power struggle in the Holy Roman Empire:The Thirty Years' War may be viewed from two aspects--a European and a German one. In respect of the first, it was the last of the great religious wars, closing the epoch of Reformation and Counter-Reformation, proving to the Catholic Powers of Europe that their ideal unity was no longer attainable and teaching mankind, by the rudest possible process, the hard lesson of toleration. In respect of the second, it had a somewhat similar effect. Germany was a Europe in miniature; her nominal unity under the Hapsburgs was a parallel to the Catholic ideal unity of Europe under the Pope and the Emperor. This unity was blasted forever by the muskets of the opposing armies. But worse than this; when the war began Germany was a rich country, as the countries of Europe then went. She was really full of cities, which, though their main threads of commerce were fast snapping, might yet fairly be called very flourishing. When the war ended she was a desert. The decimation is extremely significant since it gives an insight into why the proactive, even aggressive, aspect to German territorial diplomacy in modern terms can be seen to be historically traceable and Renaissance diplomacy allied to it in embryo. In addition, it can be seen that the conflict itself was an integral part of the way in which countries were perceived and in how they perceived themselves, for example 'Renaissance Denmark' was expanding and wished to gain control with Sweden over ports on the Baltic which were in German hands. This period of aggression facilitated individual concerns such as this, both within and outside of the Empire, as well as exposing entrenched grievances and Church power over lands which they were reluctant to give up even after changing religion: 'Everything depended on bringing the doubtful ecclesiastical principalities into the hands of men whose power and whose orthodoxy should alike be undoubted' . Thus, it can be seen that the Thirty Years' War is not easy to define in terms of the precise nature of its cause. Like most conflicts, its outbreak was due to reasons many and various and its progression and aftermath reflected this state of fragmented relations. In many ways, the Thirty Years' War was as much evidence of the failure of Renaissance diplomacy as anything else: That particular moment in history, the dozen years between the Twelve Years Truce of 1609 and the fatal spreading of the Thirty Years' War, offered Spanish diplomats a unique opportunity. Between 1598 and 1609 some sort of peace was patched up, first with France, then with England, and finally with the rebellious provinces of the Netherlands so that, although many problems were left unsolved, there was again something like a community of nations in which diplomats had room to manoeuvre. At the same time, though Spanish power was little more than a husk, Spanish prestige was scarcely diminished. The significance of the Thirty Years' War for the relations between States, therefore, is to a great extent connected with both contemporary and modern diplomacy, with the current diplomatic relations and practices amongst states very much an echo of Renaissance diplomacy 'in disguise'. The 'patched up' peace referred to above had an inherent inevitability of failure because it did not take into account the way in which individual imperatives would not only conflict with but also capitalise on the years of conflict: In 1618, over half a century of festering religious, dynastic, and strategic tensions erupted into civil war in the Holy Roman Empire, subsequently engulfing the entire European continent in thirty years of exhausting and utterly devastating warfare. Wars are seldom simple affairs, but the Thirty Years' War was even more complex than most, prompting endless scholarly debates about its causes and the motives of the major protagonists. Thus, it can readily be seen that as with the Danish desire to wrest Baltic control from the Germans the long held ambitions of individual states were given the capacity to develop under the umbrella of the conflicts of the Thirty Years' War. Clearly, the tensions which continue to exist within Europe and the way in which modern diplomacy operates can be seen to be rooted in the same entrenched desires. Indeed, even the ending of the protracted conflict in the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, has strong resonance for contemporary commentators on the way a diplomatic resolution at one point can evolve into further conflict, as the terms of the Treaty of Versailles are frequently seen as the root of the First World War: The product of seven years of diplomatic wrangling and protracted negotiation, the Peace of Westphalia is generally seen as a crucial watershed in the transition from a heteronomous system of rule to a system of territorial sovereign states. [...] This representation of the Westphalian settlement has attained almost canonical status in the discourse of international relations, but it should not be overdrawn. Significant as they were, the Treaties of Munster and Osnabruck were but one step in the territorialization of sovereign authority.[...] the Treaties of Westphalia played a crucial role in defining the scope of territorial rule. That is, they defined and codified an historically contingent range of substantive areas over which princes and monarchs could legitimately exercise political authority. The geographical extension of these political rights, however, was left ill-defined, with the reach of dynastic ties and ancient feudal rights defying the clear territorial demarcation of sovereignty. The relations between states which the Thirty Years' War established were entrenched within territorial sovereignty and this was to have extreme repercussions over succeeding centuries of diplomacy. From this point onwards, in fact, sovereignty would be a major issue in all diplomatic negotiations and remains so. Indeed, it might be argued that the Peace of Westphalia was as significant for what it failed to achieve as for what it accomplished, since it established political authority but could not take into account the extent of historical and dynastic connections or the influence of feudal rights, as stated above. Therefore, the creation or affirmation of sovereign states at the culmination of the Thirty Years' War attempted to impose or redefine territorial rights which in many cases went against historical claims: In medieval Europe political authority was decentralized and nonexclusive; a multitude of actors held rights to rule, and the content and jurisdictional purview of these rights varied temporally, spatially, and substantively, often overlapping in complex and contradictory ways. Originally, such rights were held en fief, bestowed by a superior lord in return for aid and counsel. In the late medieval period, however, the possession of feudal rights hardened; the idea that they were bestowed from above and maintained by conditional bonds of mutual obligation receded into the background, and feudal rights came to be seen as patrimony, as rightful inheritance. The Peace of Westphalia, in creating sovereign states, altered the essential dynamic of relations between states. The new treaty, ending the Thirty Years' War did not take account of these rights, replacing them with a new system of sovereign rule created, it is often said by faulty law and Machiavellian diplomacy: Hinsley argues that the Treaties of Westphalia 2came to be looked upon as the public law of Europe" but that law is questionable in its effectiveness, validity and viability, both contemporaneously and in its effects in the present day. The significance of the Thirty Years' War for the relations between States, therefore, is closely allied to the assessment of to what extent Westphalia was effective, or indeed lawful: It is clear from the texts of the treaties, and from accounts of the negotiations, that the settlement's legality did not derive from the existence of formal 'contractual' agreements between the princes and monarchs of Europe, or at least not primarily. The treaties were written and duly signed accords, but the bases of their legal sanctity lay elsewhere.The diplomacy which brought about this somewhat equivocal 'peace', therefore, needs to be examined in greater detail.
Renaissance diplomacy relied heavily upon the desire by those with power to expand and protect that power. The territorial claims which emerged and developed during the course of the Thirty Years' War had little to do with the original religious conflicts between Protestants and Catholics which began the war in the Holy Roman Empire and everything to do with the Renaissance diplomacy which was rooted in the desire to maintain and expand power. Rulers, of feudal origin, had mostly seized the power they possessed, could not rely on the loyalty of their subjects and needed to sustain their wealth by territorial alliances and self-serving allegiances. Morality had little, if anything, to do with Renaissance diplomacy and everything to do with what could be gained by power hungry individuals, including the 'princes of the Church', who even when they changed their religion were reluctant to sacrifice the control they had. After the creation of sovereign states by the Peace of Westphalia, these feudal lords were often compelled to comply with laws that were imposed upon them, parts of which can still be seen in significant aspects of contemporary diplomacy, for example permanent ambassadors with rights of impunity and foreign offices. Both of these were designed, and still are, to ensure that the power of a sovereign state was established and upheld in territories beyond their own. In this case, it can be clearly seen that modern diplomacy is indeed Renaissance diplomacy in disguise. Further, the territory of an embassy was established as being a foothold of the sovereign state it represented even though established in a foreign land. All of these aspects of Renaissance diplomacy remain fundamental to modern diplomacy and to the relationship between states. The European Union has affected this in abstract but has struggled to enforce its challenges in practice, with sovereignty a passionately debated issue in most treaties. Therefore, although it is important to remember that, 'the peace treaties [of Westphalia] do not specifically include much evidence for the claim that Westphalia is the crucial turning-point in the emergence of sovereignty [and] there is no mention of the word "sovereignty" , essentially, the diplomacy which produced the treaty at the end of the Thirty Years' War is still in place and even though 'with the birth of the Modern Age [...] the diplomatic institution underwent a profound transformation' its connection with Renaissance diplomacy is still evident. In conclusion, it must be stated that after the Thirty Years' War, the power of individual feudal laws and lords was irrevocably diminished and there was more incentive for sovereign nation states to form mutually and generically beneficial alliances. However, as is clear from wars between such states trough the centuries, it could not achieve lasting peace, though its importance in developing relations between nation states and establishing diplomatic procedure is profoundly important: Westphalia is not a literal moment of political transformation but, rather, the symbol of that change. Westphalia symbolized putting one of the final and most decisive nails in the coffin of the medieval claim that all European states were subject to the spiritual leadership of the pope and the political leadership of the Holy Roman Emperor. After Westphalia that was a hollow claim. As one historian puts it: 'this extraordinary compromise saved the theory of religious unity for each state while destroying it for the Empire.' A modern society of sovereign states had been created out of the political debris of a ruined medieval Christian empire. Nevertheless, there is a school of thought that reduces the importance of Westphalia, stating particularly that: 'the rise of the sovereign state was over three centuries old by the time of Westphalia' . Notwithstanding, the profound effect that the Thirty Years' War had on the development of the recognition of the sovereign state is difficult to overestimate and certainly, there is strong evidence of Renaissance diplomacy today.Bibliography:
Jose Calvet De Magalhaes, Bernardo Futscher Pereira, The Pure Concept of Diplomacy, (Greenwood Press, New York, 1988). Kevin Cramer, The Thirty Years' War and German Memory in the Nineteenth Century, (University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE., 2007). Paul Douglas Lockhart, Frederik II and the Protestant Cause: Denmark's Role in the Wars of Religion, 1559-1596, (Brill, Boston, 2004). C.R.L. Fletcher, Gustavus Adolphus and the Struggle of Protestantism for Existence, (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1890). Ernest F. Henderson, A Short History of Germany, (Macmillan Company, New York, 1902). Robert Jackson, The Global Covenant: Human Conduct in a World of States, (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003). Andrew Macrae, 'Counterpoint: The Westphalia Overstatement', International Social Science Review, Vol. 80, 2005. Garrett Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy, (Dover Publications Inc., Mineola, NY, 1989). Christian Reus-Smit, The Moral Purpose of the State: Culture, Social Identity, and Institutional Rationality in International Relations, (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ., 1999).Cite this page
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Methods of Employee Performance Appraisals by Outlining their Benefits and Limitations
Introduction
Organisations and managers are now using a number of appraisal methods in order to assess employee performance, and these methods both have benefits and negatives. An employee performance appraisal is a critique and a review of an employee's performance during the year, or another specified time period (Woods, 2003). Performance appraisals are one of the most important processes for successful businesses, and are one of the key metrics a human resource department within an organisation will be judged on (Kressler, 2003). Performance evaluations and appraisals have been conducted since the times of Aristotle, and the measurement of an employee's performance can allow a company to take rational decisions on an individual employee level, when reflecting on their performance (Virginia Tech, 2010). Employee performance appraisals provide a structure for managers and employees to meet and discuss performance with each other (Lotich, 2014). Jafari et al., (2009) assert that performance appraisal is one of the most important processes that the human resource department has to implement. Indeed, "there is little disagreement that if well done, performance measurements and feedback can play a valuable role in effecting the grand compromise between the needs of the individual and the needs of the organisation" (Virginia tech, 2010). Companies need to understand the purpose of appraising performance. This is to motivate an employee to increase their performance levels by attempting to help the employee understand why they are not performing effectively. It is also to identify how they can perform better (Kokemuller, 2012). This essay will look at a range of different employee performance appraisal methods, ranging from rating scales to team and self-evaluations. Both the benefits and the limitations of these will be looked at, in order to assess how effective they are as performance appraisal methods. Finally, the conclusion will discuss if there is one effective method that organisations should use, or if this is not the case.Rating Scales
One method of appraisal is rating scales, and this is one of the more common forms of performance appraisal found within organisations (Jafari et al., 2009). Two of these which are commonly used are the graphic rating scale as well as the behavioural rating scale. Using the graphical rating scale, the employees are assigned a score based upon different criteria which are important to job success (Kokemuller, 2012). The behavioural scale focuses on the actual behaviours an employee displays. The benefits of rating scales is the fact that they are easy to use and to understand. Many managers and employees are also familiar with this technique, and they offer a simple way to communicate areas of strengths and weaknesses to the employee (Kokemuller, 2012). The graphical rating scale is not very time consuming at all, and they are easy to develop and administer as well as allowing for a range of quantitative analysis. Negatives of rating scales is the assumption that they are tied to a raise or a bonus for the employee, and this can contribute towards score inflation. Managers can also have a negative bias towards employees when utilising this method too (Kokemuller, 2012).Narrative Techniques
Another technique is the narrative technique, which is similar to the critical independent method. When compared to the rating scales technique, these offer a more detailed analysis of job performance (Kokemuller, 2012). In these, an essay assessment is written of the performance for the narrative technique, with a log kept for the critical independent method. This log is based on the critical incidents which occur over the year, or the period of time the performance appraisal focuses on, and looks to the actual performance as opposed to behaviours like the essay technique (Jafari et al., 2009). A benefit of these techniques is the amount of detail, and how thorough they can be in analysing the behaviour of employees (Kokemuller, 2012). Maintaining a detailed set of notes throughout the year enables a manager to give a well-rounded and an accurate account of employee performance (Root, 2011). As well as this, there can be a focus on praising positive behaviours, as well as addressing areas where correction is needed. However, this thoroughness and scope for wide ranging discussion does leave the analysis up for open interpretation without a scoring and rating system, and therefore the employee may interpret the evaluation in a too positive or too negative light (Kokemuller, 2012). This method can be used in conjunction with other methods, such as the graphical scale, to enable something more quantitative with a qualitative rating too (Jafari et al., 2009).Comparison Methods
Comparison methods is a multi-person method, which is a common appraisal technique. This approach, and the forced distribution method, compare the employee's performance to the fellow workers within the organisation (Kokemuller, 2012). This allows the manager to communicate to an employee where they are performing well, and where they are not performing well in comparison to the other employees. The benefits of this are that this can motivate performance in competitive workplaces and among employees who have a competitive nature (Kokemuller, 2012). However this comparative methods could cause infighting, lack of teamwork and a lack of harmony among employees within the business, and this could lead to a deterioration in performance (Kokemuller, 2012). This method could be used in conjunction with the graphical scale, as the graphical scale would allow easy comparison between employees (Root, 2010).360 Feedback
The development of an employee is dependent on the progress made within the specific department that they work in, as well as how effective they are when working with the rest of the company (Root, 2010). 360 degree feedback is a popular performance appraisal technique in modern organisations. In this method, the employee is evaluated by a wide range of people. This can range from co-workers, to supervisors as well as customers and those working under them (Kokemuller, 2012). One advantage of this is that the employee can see how a wide range of stakeholders view their performance in the key relationships that are critical to the employee's job role. Different perspectives are also a positive in the appraisal process, and this is much more comprehensive than having just one person assessing the employee's performance (Kokemuller, 2012). Hakala (2012) notes that 360 degree feedback is the most comprehensive, but also the most expensive performance appraisal measure and is normally only reserved for key employees within the organisation. Indeed, 360 degree feedback can be seen to be very good for gaining a broader perspective, having multi source feedback and for greater self-development. It is able to measure a range of different objectives effectively that other aspects may not, such as interpersonal skills and customer satisfaction (HRwale, 2015). There is also the 720 degree method, which Shaout and Yousif (2014) cite that it is 360 degree but practiced twice. It includes getting feedback from further external sources such as suppliers, family and communities of which the organisation is intertwined with. 360 degree feedback is expensive and time consuming for organisations to implement, as it is much more comprehensive, and requires much more time invested in it to implement as opposed to the other methods previously discussed.Self Evaluation and Team Evaluations
Another form of effective performance appraisal has been seen to be self-evaluation and team evaluation. The benefits of these are that they are easy to administer, involving forms that can be filled in and used to rate yourself or those in your team based on a number of different criteria (Root, 2011). These forms can also be used in conjunction with other methods in an attempt to see if their colleagues and self-performance evaluations are of a similar view to the managers. Indeed, Root (2010) mentions that this is particularly useful when teamed with a performance review. Fellow workers may possibly have a better perspective of the jobs that are performed by their peers, and also have a better insight into what working them is liked (Root, 2012). However, there is obviously the possibility that a bias may exist when self-evaluation, or evaluating colleagues who may be friends, or who may be disliked despite having stellar performance in their job roles. This evaluation by peers or by the team can help to open up conversation between the manager, the employee, and the team which can be extremely beneficial to the overall development for the employee (Root, 2010). This is because there can often be discrepancies between what the management, and what the employee consider to be important performance factors (Hakala, 2008).Management By Objectives
The final technique of performance appraisal is management by objectives. Here, employees are assessed on how they can accomplish a specific set of objectives that the company have asserted are critical for the successful completion of the organisations corporate objectives (Jafari et al., 2009). Their performance can be graded against the objectives which are specified by the management (Shaout and Yousif, M, 2014). This is a process which converts objectives or organisations to objectives for the individual employees. This requires: setting goals, periodic reviews, plans of action as well as self-control (Jafari et al., 2009). So, the process would begin with statements of action such as "reduce defected parts in the manufacturing process to 5%", throughout the process there would be a close monitoring and reviewing of the objectives previously identified to keep the employee focused on their goals (Hakala, 2008). Therefore at the end of year performance appraisal, the progress the employee has made towards their goals is assessed, with new goals set for the next year. This process can be seen to be more useful for managerial positions, as their key goals may be more closely aligned with corporate strategy, and thus easier to identify. Likewise, the negatives may not be applicable to all jobs. Another negative would be the fact that focusing on specific objectives in the performance review may lead the employee to neglect any objectives which are not so heavily scrutinised, or not tied to the allocation of merit pay (HRwale, 2010).Conclusion - Is there one best method of performance appraisals?
As has been seen in this essay, and as academics assert, there is no one size fits all approach to employee performance appraisal (Scott and Einstein, 2001). It can be seen that a range of different performance appraisal processes are effective when implemented (Root, 2010). As well as this, more and more companies are beginning to recognise that effective performance appraisal is key to successfully achieving corporate objectives (Grote, 2000). Human resource management and performance appraisals are aimed to improve corporate performance, while targeting individuals on the individual level as opposed to the business level. It is important to develop realistic and clear performance standards while reducing communication problems between the managers and their employees. Companies need to select the correct method for them based on a range of different factors, such as the need to compare employees, the cost of the method, the scope for error as well as the training needs evaluation for their specific company (Jafari et al., 2009). If performance appraisals are not done correctly, a mixed message can be left which leaves employees feeling disappointed and confused, whereas the purpose of performance appraisals are to reinforce the good work the best performers do, and to try and improve what poor performers do (Knight, 2011). In order for the performance appraisal process to be successful, it needs to have the same quality of businesses who thrive. It needs passion, agility, speed and alignment (Bersin, 2013). Organisations need to be flexible in their processes, and arrange them to meet the targets for their specific company. Organisations also need to be aware of overcoming the negatives of performance evaluation such as having a one sided conversation, or an evaluator bias (Johnson, 2011). If these are present, they can have a negative effect upon employees, which is not intended. Therefore it is impossible to recommend one process over all of the others. As has been seen, all the processes have negatives and positives and are more applicable in different situations. 360 degree feedback is the most comprehensive of all the methods, but this is expensive and time consuming and can still fall foul of the negative aspects of performance appraisal. Companies thus need to ensure efficient performance appraisal, and align the process with their corporate objectives.Bibliography
Bersin, J. (2013) [Online] Time to Scrap Performance Appraisals. Forbes. Available from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/joshbersin/2013/05/06/time-to-scrap-performance-appraisals/ Grote, D. (2000) [Online] Performance Appraisal Reappraised. Harvard Business Review. Available from: https://hbr.org/2000/01/performance-appraisal-reappraised Hakala, D. (2008) [Online] 16 Ways to Measure Employee Performance. HR World. Available from: https://www.hrworld.com/features/16-ways-measure-performance-021908/ HRwale (2015) [Online] Performance Appraisal Methods. Available from: https://www.hrwale.com/performance-management/performance-appraisal-methods/ Jafari, M. Bourouni, A. Amiri, R. (2009) A New Framework for Selection of the Best Performance Appraisal Method. European Journal of Social Sciences. 7(3). 92-100. Johnson, R. (2011) [Online] Advantages & Disadvantages of Performance Evaluation. Available from: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/advantages-disadvantages-performance-evaluation-21143.html Knight, R. (2011) [Online] Delivering an effective performance review. Harvard Business Review. Available from: https://hbr.org/2011/11/delivering-an-effective-perfor Kokemuller, N. (2012) [Online] The Pros & Cons of Performance Appraisal Methods. Available from: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/pros-cons-performance-appraisal-methods-39497.html Kressler, H. (2003) Motivate and Reward. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Lotich, P. (2014) [Online] Advantages and Disadvantages of Performance Appraisals. Available from: https://thethrivingsmallbusiness.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-performance-appraisals/ Root, G. (2011) [Online] Basic Performance Appraisal Techniques. Available from: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/basic-performance-appraisal-techniques-1261.html Root, G. (2010) [Online] Methods of Performance Evaluation. Available from: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/methods-performance-evaluation-1869.html Scott, S. Einstein, W. (2001) Strategic performance appraisal in team-based organisations: One size does not fit all. Academy of Management Executive. 15(2) 108-116. Shaout, A. Yousif, M. (2014) Performance Evaluation - Methods and Techniques Survey. International Journal of Computer and Information Technology. 3(5). 966-979. Virginia tech (2010) [Online] Performance Appraisals 101. Available from: https://www.staffingpractices.soe.vt.edu/performanceappraisal101/literature.htm Woods, C. (2003) [Online] Employee Performance Appraisal. Available from: https://study.com/academy/lesson/employee-performance-appraisal-methods-process-examples.htmlCite this page
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Collaborative Practice in Australian Maternity Settings: Focus on Rural and Remote Practice
In the context of maternity care, 'collaboration' is defined as a shared partnership between a birthing woman, midwives, doctors and other members of a multidisciplinary team (National Health & Medical Research Council, 2010). Collaborative practice is based on the philosophy that multidisciplinary teams can deliver care superior to that which could be provided by any one profession alone (National Health & Medical Research Council, 2010). Indeed, there is evidence to suggest that collaborative maternity practice does improve outcomes for women, including both clinical outcomes and consumer satisfaction with care (Hastie & Fahy, 2011). Collaborative practice is particularly important in Australian rural and remote maternity settings, which are characterised by fragmented, discontinuous care provision (Downe et al., 2010). As such, both the Code of Ethics for Midwives in Australia (for midwives and obstetric nurses) and the Collaborative Maternity Care Statement (for obstetricians and other doctors) require that a collaborative model of care be adopted in Australian maternity settings. However, inconsistencies between and among midwives and doctors about the definition of 'collaboration', and subsequent ineffective collaborative practice, remain key causes of adverse outcomes in maternity settings in Australia (Hastie & Fahy, 2011; Heatley & Kruske, 2011). This paper provides a critical analysis of collaborative practice in Australian rural and remote maternity settings.
Rural and remote maternity care in Australia
It is estimated that one-third of birthing women in Australia live outside of major metropolitan centres – defined for the purpose of this paper as 'rural and remote regions' (National Health & Medical Research Council, 2010). However, the number of facilities offering maternity care to women in these regions is just 156 and declining (2007 estimate) (Australian Government Department of Health, 2011). Australian research suggests that the decreasing number of rural and remote maternity services is resulting in more women having high-risk, unplanned and unassisted births outside of medicalised maternity services (Francis et al., 2012; McLelland et al., 2013); indeed, one recent study drew a direct correlation between these two factors (Kildea et al., 2015). Additionally, statistics suggest that both maternal and neonatal perinatal mortality rates in Australia are highest in rural and remote regions (Australian Government Department of Health, 2011). High perinatal mortality rates and lack of services in rural and remote communities mean that many rural and remote women are transferred to metropolitan centres, often mandatorily, for birth (Josif et al., 2014). This system has resulted in fragmented, discontinuous care for many rural and remote women – which is itself a poor outcome (National Health & Medical Research Council, 2010; Sandall et al., 2015). Many women find such models of care to be significantly disempowering, which again may result in poorer outcomes (Josif et al., 2014). Indeed, many women, and particularly Aboriginal women, may resist engaging with medicalised maternity services to avoid being transferred 'off-country' for birth (Josif et al., 2014). Furthermore, those women who are transferred 'off-country' for birth bear a significant financial, social and cultural burden (Dunbar, 2011; Evans et al., 2011; Hoang & Le, 2013).
Australian maternity services reform
In response to these issues, in 2009 the Australian government commenced a major reform of maternity care. This reform included attempts to shift maternity services provided to rural and remote women to more collaborative, continuous, community-centred models (Francis et al., 2012). These new models of care require midwives to work collaboratively with general practitioners, obstetricians and rural doctors to care for a rural or remote woman in her own community to the greatest extent possible (McIntyre et al., 2012a). Evidence suggests that rural and remote women desire to be cared for in their local communities provided the maternity services offered are safe (Hoang & Le, 2013). Indeed, there is evidence to suggest that women, and particularly Aboriginal women, who birth within their communities have an increased likelihood of positive outcomes (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009). However, the National Guidance on Collaborative Maternity Care, which resulted from the government reforms, notes there are a number of unique and significant challenges to achieving collaborative practice in rural and remote community settings (National Health & Medical Research Council, 2010).
Collaborative care in Australian maternity settings – challenges and complexities
The fundamental aim of collaborative services in Australia is the provision of 'woman-centred care', where women are empowered to be active partners in the provision of their care (National Health & Medical Research Council, 2010). It is well-established that the delivery of woman-centred care in a maternity setting produces the best outcomes, in terms of both clinical outcomes and consumer satisfaction with care (Pairman et al., 2006). In a recent Australian study, Jenkins et al. (2015) suggest that collaboration is fundamental in the achievement of woman-centred care in rural and remote settings in terms of continuity of care – including consistency in communication between care providers – across often vast geographical regions. However, conflicting definitions and interpretations of the concept of 'woman-centred care' between midwives and doctors are a key barrier to achieving collaborative practice in Australian maternity settings (Lane, 2006). These problems are magnified in rural and remote settings, where transfers of care between midwives and doctors often occur abruptly when women are transported 'off-country' to deliver (Lane, 2012). Differences in understandings of the concept of 'woman-centred care' between midwives and doctors – and, therefore, impairments to effective collaboration – are underpinned by midwives' and doctors' differing perceptions of 'risk' in childbirth. Indeed, a study by Beasley et al. (2012) identified incompatible perceptions of best-practice strategies to mitigate risk as the key factor underpinning the lack of collaborative practice between midwives and doctors in Australian maternity settings. Whilst midwives focus on normalcy, wellness and physiology in birth, doctors place an emphasis on intervention – both valid approaches to risk mitigation in birth, but fundamentally contradictory (Lane, 2006; Beasley et al. 2012; Downe et al., 2010; Lane 2006). These differing philosophies of care have resulted in increasing tensions in maternity settings, and this has been exacerbated by sensationalist media reporting, particularly following the Senate Inquiries into Media Reform of 2008/09 (Beasley et al., 2012). The concept of risk is particularly important in rural and remote settings, given the decision to transfer a woman 'off-country' is often made on the basis of risk. The reforms to the Australian maternity system – including the introduction of the Nurses and Midwives Act 2009 – have resulted in significant increases to midwives' scope of practice and autonomy (National Health & Medical Research Council, 2010; Beasley et al., 2012). This is particularly important in rural settings, where midwives are often required to be 'specialist generalists' with a diverse suite of clinical skills (Gleeson, 2015). However, this expansion in midwives' scope has further challenged the achievement of collaborative practice in Australian maternity settings. Tensions have occurred because doctors often perceive themselves to be solely accountable for the outcomes of maternity care and, therefore, legally vulnerable when practicing under midwifery-led models of care focusing in risk-mitigation strategies to which they may be unaccustomed or opposed (Lane, 2006; Beasley et al., 2012). These issues are particularly obvious in rural and remote maternity settings, where the referral of the care of birthing women by midwives to doctors may occur primarily during obstetric emergencies. Doctors in Australia have been particularly vocal about the fact that there is poor evidence to support the safety of midwifery-led models of care, including in rural and remote maternity settings (Boxall & Flitcroft, 2007). The expansion in midwives' scope of practice has also challenged the achievement of collaborative practice in Australian maternity settings in other ways. Australian research suggests doctors fear the expansion of midwives' scope will result in them becoming redundant in, and therefore, excluded from maternity settings, and that a decline in clinical outcomes will result (Lane, 2012). As noted by Barclay and Tracy (2010), despite the recent increases to midwives' scope of practice, both midwives' and doctors' continue to have a distinct scope in terms of caring for a birthing woman and both remain legally bound to practice within this scope. However, many doctors continue to oppose the reforms to the maternity system on the basis of changes in midwives' scope – and also because these reforms may not be evidence based, may fail to meet the needs of women (and particularly the unique needs of rural and remote women), and are driven by service providers rather than consumers (Boxall & Flitcroft, 2007; McIntyre et al., 2012b; Hoang & Le, 2013). Again, doctors' opposition to changes in midwives' scope significantly impairs the achievement of collaborative practice in Australian maternity settings. These issues are further complicated by the fact that Commonwealth law now requires midwives practicing in Australia to have 'collaborative arrangements' with a medical practitioner if they are to receive Medicare-provider status (Barclay & Tracy, 2010). This particularly affects private-practice midwives practicing in rural and remote areas of Australia. However, as noted by Lane (2012), such legislation – which effectively forces midwives and doctors into a collaborative relationship – is fundamentally inconsistent with the concept of collaboration as a professional relationship based on equity, trust and respect. Further, these reforms impose collaboration and compel midwives and doctors to form collaborative relationships are unworkable in many rural and remote maternity settings. Often, midwives practicing in these settings work with doctors who are fly-in fly-out locums, who are on temporary placements or who are located in regional centres many hundreds of kilometres away, making the establishment of genuine collaborative relationships a highly complex process (Barclay & Tracy, 2010).
Collaborative care in Australian maternity settings – opportunities and achievement
Despite these significant issues, however, research suggests that collaboration can be achieved in Australian rural and remote maternity settings. The first step in achieving collaboration in this context is for both midwives and doctors to undergo a 'shift in perception' with regards to each other's' professional roles and boundaries (Lane, 2006; McIntyre et al., 2012a). This will particularly involve doctors' increasing acceptance of midwives' expanding role in rural and remote maternity care provision. Rural and remote maternity services in particular provide positive examples of midwifery-led models of maternity care providing maternity services which are both safe and effective (McIntyre et al., 2012a); indeed, one study concludes that shared but midwifery-led models are the best way to achieve continuity of care in rural and remote maternity settings (Francis et al., 2012). Therefore, evidence from these models may be used to bolster doctors' confidence in the efficacy of midwifery-led approaches to maternity care. However, for this to be achieved, incompatibilities in care philosophies between midwives and doctors must be overcome. This may commence with midwives and doctors recognising that both professions share the same basic goal of achieving the best outcomes for women (Lane, 2006). Communication is also fundamental to the achievement of collaborative practice in Australian maternity settings (National Health & Medical Research Council, 2010). Indeed, Lane (2012) notes that effective communication between midwives and doctors is one of the 'minimal conditions' which must be met if collaborative practice in maternity settings is to be achieved. However, there are a range of barriers to effective communication between midwives and doctors in rural and remote maternity settings, the most significant of which is geographical distance. 'Telehealth', which involves the use of telecommunication technologies to facilitate communication between clinicians – and particularly those who care for 'priority consumers' such as mothers and babies' – in geographically diverse regions of Australia may be useful in promoting collaborative practice in rural and remote maternity settings (Australian Nursing Federation 2013). The National Health & Medical Research Council (2010) also identifies written documentation – including pregnancy records, care pathways and a transfer / retrieval plan – to be important in fostering collaborative practice in in rural and remote maternity settings. Collaboration, or practice based on a shared partnership between a birthing woman, midwives, doctors and other members of a multidisciplinary team, results in improves outcomes for birthing women. As such, codes of practice for both midwives and doctors in Australia require that collaborative practice be utilised in Australian maternity settings. Research evidence suggests that due to the unique challenges posed by rural and remote maternity settings in Australia, collaborative practice is particularly important in this context. However, in Australia in general – and in rural and remote maternity settings in particular – collaborative practice is both lacking and challenging to achieve. This paper has provided a critical analysis of collaborative practice, with a particular focus on Australian rural and remote maternity settings. It has concluded that whilst it may be challenging to achieve, collaboration in Australian rural and remote maternity settings can – and, indeed, should – be achieved in order to promote the best outcomes for birthing women in these regions.
References
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Collaborative practice in Australian maternity settings: Focus on rural and remote practice. (2017, Jun 26).
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